Rebellion in Uthmani Era: Causes & Martyrdom

Causes of Rebellious Movement During Uthmani Era

Question: What were the causes of the rebellious movement during the Uthmani era? How was Uthman (R.A.) martyred? What role did the Sahaba (Companions) play in trying to save Uthman (R.A.)?

Answer!!

Alhamdulillah::

In this series, we will try to understand what was the cause of the rebellious movement that arose during the third era of the Caliphate. And how, in the presence of the Sahaba, did they manage to martyr Uthman (R.A.)?

As we know, in the last two years of the era of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), a movement arose against him, and two to three thousand people from this movement besieged Madinah. Hazrat Ali, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.) tried in every possible way to stop these rebels, but they martyred the Caliph and seized power. Now the question arises: how did this movement emerge? What was its methodology? How was it organized and how did it spread? What was the attitude of the Sahaba regarding it?

To get the answers to these questions, we will have to conduct a detailed study of all historical narrations related to this topic because this rebellion was extremely complex in its nature. Before this study, it is necessary that we understand some general matters related to rebellious movements, as they will help us understand this rebellious movement that arose during the time of Hazrat Uthman and Ali (R.A.).

The Life Cycle of Rebellious Movements and Their Characteristics

If we take a collective overview of rebellious movements that have arisen in different eras, it becomes clear that, like humans, these movements also have a life cycle.

The Movement’s “Life Cycle”

When a human is born, he is a very weak child. His parents nurture him. He gets air and food from his surroundings. He gets mental and spiritual nourishment from his parents and teachers, and thus he grows up. By gaining experience, he reaches maturity, which is the peak of his life. After that, first his body and then his mind fall into decline, and thus he gradually becomes weak and then one day meets death. After a person dies, it is not so that his generation also ends with him; rather, he produces more humans in the form of his children, who similarly have a life cycle. Yes, sometimes it happens that a person has no children, and with his death, his lineage also ends.

The life cycle of rebellious movements (and perhaps all kinds of movements) is similar. This movement initially arises in the mind of one or a few individuals, and the reason for it can be anything, for example, disagreement with the government of the time on some issue, the desire for dominance over others, the desire to change the system of the time, etc.

When this movement arises in this person’s mind, he thinks about it and talks about it with trustworthy people. If this movement exists in the minds of multiple individuals, they come together for their common goal. If they have a clear plan of action before them, they start working on it and start looking for more like-minded people. Along with this, the ideological work of the movement also continues, which makes the plan of action clearer. We can call this period the “childhood” of the movement.

Just as children sometimes die due to an accident or illness, similarly, a movement can also meet its death in childhood due to an internal crisis or an external accident.¹ For example, if the government is strong and its intelligence system is good, it becomes aware of the rebellious movement at this very stage and quashes it in its infancy. If the government cannot become aware of this movement or ignores it due to some expediency, this movement continues. As the movement gains more companions, its resources and strength increase. A time comes when this movement becomes a strong tree.

Leadership and Tactics

If the rebellious movement gets leaders who are wise and experienced, they wait for the appropriate time for any action. But if these leaders are emotional and short-sighted, they act hastily and take direct action quickly.

In the first case, the movement generally succeeds, and the government is overthrown. But in the second case, the movement dies in its prime, and its death can be likened to that young person who is killed in an accident or a fight.

If a rebellious movement becomes a strong tree, its roots generally spread far and wide. Such a rebellious movement is like an iceberg, which appears small on the surface of the sea but is many times larger under the sea.

In such a case, if it confronts the government, and even if the government overcomes it, its roots remain secretly embedded in society because, in case of defeat, the sentiments do not end; rather, the spirit of revenge becomes even stronger. In this situation, a trunk emerges again from these roots, and branches sprout, and then at some opportunity, another rebellion is born. In this way, rebellions rise again and again, and the “harvest of heads” is reaped repeatedly. A large part of the government’s energy is spent in suppressing these rebellions. For example, in our own times, we can see that rebellious movements against the British government continued to rise for two hundred years. The British hanged them, gave them life sentences in exile (Kala Pani), and imprisoned them, but after one rebellion was suppressed, another movement would stand up. In exactly the same way, during the Muslim period in Spain, rebellions repeatedly arose from the local population.

The Psychology of Rebel Leaders

If the psychology of the leaders of rebellious movements is studied, certain characteristics are prominently visible in it:

• Rebel leaders are generally courageous and determined.
• Rebel leaders have a strong desire to seize the government and run affairs according to their own will.
• Rebel leaders use every possible tactic to gain the support of the masses. For this, they use their charismatic abilities and also appeal to people’s emotions in various ways. The use of slogans like religion, nationalism, and jihad against oppression is common in this appeal.
• Rebel leaders often use religion to achieve their goals because it is a good way to inflame people’s emotions.

The Aftermath of Rebellion

Usually, if a rebellion fails, its leaders are killed or arrested. After that, the rebellious movement generally goes into camouflage and secretly starts the work of preparing new leaders and workers. This process takes many years, and after that, a new rebellion is raised again. As a result of the death of one rebel leader, ten rebels are born because he is declared a “martyr,” and politics is played over his corpse. This cycle continues until either a rebellious movement completely loses its strength or the government of the time becomes weak and ends. This is why you must have read in history that such-and-such king forgave such-and-such rebel leader, gave him concessions, and even appointed him as a ruler of some area. The reason for this is that it is difficult to end a rebellion forever through war. This is why wise rulers try to reconcile with rebels by treating them well and giving them something, in order to change the rebels’ minds and prevent the possibility of a future rebellion.

A rebellion generally achieves success when it has the support of the majority of the masses. If the rebels are in the minority and they achieve success in one battle, even then it is not long-lasting. Complete success only comes from the support of the vast majority of the people.

If the rebellion succeeds, in that case, the government changes, and the second power replaces the first power. Then, against this second government, some rebellious movement or movements also stand up, and this cycle continues until some third government replaces the second government. After that, this cycle continues indefinitely. Just as we see that in the second century Hijri, the Abbasids launched a movement against the Umayyads and ended their rule. Then when the Abbasids became Caliphs, movements continued against them in the same way for two hundred years until the Abbasid Caliphate became weak. It is another matter that the powers that gained rule later found it appropriate to keep the Abbasids as nominal Caliphs.

If human history is studied, it is clear that this cycle of rebellion after rebellion has been going on forever. In modern-day countries where the roots of democracy are deep, a special thing has happened: the method of changing the government has been constitutionally defined. In this way, those who disagree with the government have been constitutionally recognized as the opposition, and they have been given the opportunity to work openly within the limits of the constitution and law, and when they get the support of the majority of the people, the government is handed over to them. In countries where the democratic system is not strong, rebellions keep happening, but in countries with strong democracy, the number of rebellions is negligible.

The Role of Propaganda

One of the most prominent features of rebellious movements is their propaganda cell, and they excel in this work. We have already mentioned Goebbels’ saying that the principle of propaganda is to tell a lie so many times and with such frequency that people believe it to be true. Now, it is difficult to make people accept a “white lie,” so these movements mix lies and truth and present them with such confidence that people accept it. Trivial matters are turned into issues and presented in such a way as if the apocalypse will come if this issue is not resolved. In this way, by gaining their support, these movements advance their mission. The emotions of common people, especially the youth, are incited on the basis of religion or nationalism, and then they are made sacrificial lambs to pave the way for the leaders’ power. For the rebels, the killing of thousands or even millions of people is not a big deal. If we look at the communist movements of our time, it is clear that millions of human beings were put to death in their revolutionary movements, and far from expressing any sorrow over it, pride was expressed instead.²

If rebellious movements suffer a temporary defeat, they take full advantage of that as well. During the war, the stories of their heroes’ bravery are exaggerated, and every possible attempt is made to prove the government of the time as oppressive. One mistake of the government is presented as a hundred-fold, while every mistake of their own is covered up. After defeat, sympathies are garnered by saying things like, “We have been looted, we have been ruined, the oppressors have killed us.” If any injustice is committed by the government soldiers, a mountain is made out of a molehill. But if it doesn’t happen, they secretly take some action against their own supporters and put the blame on the government. Since every nation is sensitive about the honor and sanctity of women, their violation is particularly highlighted.

Making the government of the time a devil and presenting their own leaders as angels or even gods is a special weapon of these movements.

Giving a romantic color to a heinous act like rebellion, in which sedition and chaos (fitna-o-fasad) are created, and people’s lives, property, and honor are at stake, is a special custom of these movements.

The detail we have described here has been derived from the study of many rebellious movements. You can take a detailed look at the current Muslim and non-Muslim rebellious movements like the Irish Republican Army, Tamil Tigers, Khalistan movement, and Maoist rebels/militants, and any rebellious movement, and you will find that all the above-mentioned characteristics are found in them. Studies of books by their supporters and opponents on all these movements yield these same details.

Keeping in mind these general details about rebellious movements, we can understand the rebellious movement that arose against Hazrat Uthman (R.A.).

How and When Did the Rebellious Movement Against Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) Emerge?

We do not know much about when the rebellious movement against Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) began. The reason is that it was a secret movement. Only those things about it have reached us through historical narrations that were based on some open action that everyone saw, or some member of this movement himself exposed one of its internal matters. It is obvious that no movement stands up in a few days; rather, years of effort are required behind it.

We can estimate that this rebellious movement might have started during the time of Hazrat Umar (R.A.), or perhaps even during the time of Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A.). When the rebellion of the apostates was quashed during the era of Siddiq Akbar (R.A.), surely not all of those rebels would have accepted obedience with heart and soul. A large number of their leaders and warriors were killed in the wars, but their second and third-tier leaders and workers survived these wars and were taken as prisoners of war.

Hazrat Abu Bakr and Umar (R.A.) treated these prisoners very well. They were given the opportunity to re-study Islam, and many of them became Muslims with full sincerity. Among them, the name of Talaiha bin Khuwailid al-Asadi (May Allah have mercy on him) is found, who had first claimed prophethood but then became a Muslim with sincere intention and played an extraordinary role in the conquest of Persia. However, the full possibility exists that, unlike the sincere ones, many people did not accept Islam with full sincerity but merely accepted obedience after being overwhelmed by the power of the Sahaba. They started a secret movement internally, which was its infancy. Gradually, their new generation grew up, which was prepared over a period of twenty years.

The wars against the apostates took place in 11 AH / 633 CE, while the movement against Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) came to the forefront somewhere around 34 AH / 656 CE. From this, it is estimated that this movement continued to work underground for 22-23 years.

What Was the Rebellious Movement Doing During the Farooqi Era (Era of Umar R.A.)?

During the era of Hazrat Umar (R.A.), apart from his martyrdom, there is no other incident that can be attributed to this movement. We have discussed above in the context of his martyrdom that after the martyrdom of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), when the rebels gained dominance, they tried to kill Ubaidullah bin Umar (R.A.) in the case of Hormuzan, even though his heirs had forgiven Ubaidullah. This suggests that these rebels perhaps wanted to do this to appease the Iranian element within them. It is possible that Hazrat Umar’s (R.A.) assassin, Feroz, was also part of this movement. Conversely, the possibility also exists that they reopened the case of Hormuzan merely because they wanted to criticize Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) for the sake of criticism. Which of these possibilities is correct? We could not find the answer to this in the books of history.

Apart from this one incident, we do not find traces of other activities of this rebellious movement during the Farooqi era. The main reason for this is that Hazrat Umar (R.A.) had kept the Arabs busy in the conquest of Rome and Persia. When there is an enemy in front, internal problems generally remain suppressed. Secondly, during that time, this rebellious movement was still in its initial stages. Finding companions, brainwashing them, and then finding more like-minded people is a very slow process, and for this, they needed fifteen to twenty years. During the era of Hazrat Umar (R.A.), the intelligence system was also very good, and reports of minor incidents reached the Caliph, due to which these people could not work openly.

Among these rebels, the people of Kufa were of a more emotional and rebellious type; they had started to show their colors (lit: grow feathers) even in the time of Hazrat Umar (R.A.). They started this by coming to Hazrat Umar and complaining about their governor.³

First, they came to Madinah and made complaints against Hazrat Sa’d bin Abi Waqqas (R.A.) and then got Hazrat Ammar bin Yasir (R.A.) deposed. Hazrat Umar appointed Hazrat Mughira bin Shu’ba (R.A.) as the governor here, but they tried to get him deposed by accusing him of adultery. Upon this, Hazrat Umar appointed the experienced companion Abu Musa Ash’ari (R.A.) as the governor here and said to him:

“Abu Musa! I am sending you to a land where Satan has laid eggs, and chicks have also hatched from them. Therefore, adhere to the method that you know. And do not change, otherwise, Allah will also change His way with you.”

(Tabari – 13H/ 3/1-81)

This shows that Hazrat Umar (R.A.) had a keen eye on the changes happening in Kufa. Hazrat Abu Musa Ash’ari (R.A.) requested that companions from the Muhajireen and Ansar be sent with him as helpers, as they are in the affairs of the Ummah like salt in food. Hazrat Umar approved this and gave him permission to take whomever he wanted. He took 29 companions with him, including Anas bin Malik, Imran bin Husain, and Hisham bin ‘Amir (R.A.). Abu Musa went to Kufa and investigated the allegation against Hazrat Mughira, and when it proved to be false, he implemented the punishment for Qadhf (false accusation) on the accusers. Some time after this, these people arrived with complaints against Hazrat Abu Musa.

At that time, the population of Kufa was around one hundred thousand. Hazrat Umar (R.A.) was worried that this was a strange city whose people bring complaints against every governor. He consulted the companions about what kind of ruler should be appointed for Kufa: soft and God-fearing, or strict. Hazrat Mughira bin Shu’ba gave the opinion that a strict ruler would be better. Hazrat Umar appointed him as the governor of Kufa again.

(Tabari 17H/ 3/1-183)

Then, during the time of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) as well, they continued these sorts of activities and leveled the accusation of drinking wine against Governor Walid bin Uqba (R.A.), and then created a disturbance during the time of the next governor, Sa’id bin al-‘As (May Allah have mercy on him).

How Did the Rebellious Movement Flourish in the Uthmani Era?

During the era of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), the intelligence network could not be maintained at that level, which made it easier for this movement to work. Still, it took them another ten years before they were capable of staging a rebellion. During this time, they gathered various types of elements who were dissatisfied with the government of the time for one reason or another. These elements had their own motives, and this movement can rightly be called a motley crew. Since all these elements later separated, it can be estimated which groups were included in it. The details are as follows:

1. The first element was those people among the rebels who were not satisfied with the government of the Rashidun Caliphs. These were the people who are rebels against every government. They only like the government that is their own; otherwise, they do nothing but criticize every government, and if they can, they also start a rebellion. (Even in our times, such people are found, and they are called anarchists, (like Maulana Rizvi))
   Some of them were arrested by the governor of Kufa, Sa’id bin al-‘As (May Allah have mercy on him), and sent to Syria. Its details are forthcoming. Among them were also some professional criminals, thieves, and robbers, including the head of the Basra chapter of the rebel movement, Hakim bin Jabala. His habit was that when the Muslim army went somewhere, he would also go along, and when the army returned, he would stay behind and loot in the areas of non-Muslims. (Tabari – 35H/3/1-369)
2. The second element was those people who joined the rebellion merely out of greed for power. During the era of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), the Muslim government had spread from Afghanistan to Libya. The government’s revenue from kharaj (land tax) was in the millions. The rebels’ problem was, why was the control of this wealth not in their hands? Consequently, these people joined the rebellion. Most of the rebels from Kufa belonged to this group. Some of them, in a fit of emotion, created a disturbance during the time of Kufa’s governor, Sa’id bin al-‘As (R.A.), as a result of which they had to suffer imprisonment. Malik Ashtar, who later became the leader of the rebels, belonged to this group. (Tabari, 35H/3/1-366)
3. The third element was those pious and God-fearing people who were victims of a kind of religious arrogance. They considered everyone except themselves to be infidels, sinners, and astray, and such people also exist in our time. Among the rebels, these gentlemen were of a very devout nature, which made them consider themselves better than others. They looked upon the Sabiqoon al-Awwaloon (the first and foremost companions) in the same light and struggled against their authority. Later, this group split from the rebel movement and came to be called “Khawarij.” Since they had deeply ingrained habits of narrow-mindedness, extremism, and passing judgment (Judgmentalism) on others, they could not maintain unity even among themselves and soon split into many sects, began fighting amongst themselves, and finally became a part of history.
4. The fourth element was that of the Jews. After the Hijrah (migration), the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) gave them full rights under the Charter of Madinah, but they started conspiracies against the Muslims. When action was taken against them, they went to Khaybar and fortified themselves. In the Battle of Khaybar, the full force of the Jews was broken, and after that, they became completely subservient to the Muslims. However, among these Jews, there was a class that worked to hollow out the roots of the Muslims from within. Some of them apparently accepted Islam and then organized the rebel movement. The famous leader of this movement, Abdullah bin Saba, also belonged to this group.
5. The fifth element consisted of some incompetent young men who were angry with the government for not getting a position. Among them, Muhammad bin Abi Bakr and Muhammad bin Abi Hudhayfa were prominent.⁴ Hazrat Abu Bakr and Abu Hudhayfa (R.A.) were both esteemed companions. Muhammad bin Abi Bakr was the biological son of Hazrat Abu Bakr and the step-son of Hazrat Ali (R.A.), and he (Ali) had raised him. On the other hand, Muhammad bin Abi Hudhayfa was raised in the house of the Caliph of the time, Hazrat Uthman (R.A.). After the death of his father, Hazrat Uthman had borne his expenses, as he used to sponsor many orphans.⁵ When these two became young, they desired to get high positions in the government, but they were not competent for them. Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) sent them to Egypt so that they could gain experience by staying with the governors there, but they adopted an attitude of rebellion there. When the rebel movement was organized in Egypt, they became a part of it. (Tabari – 35H/3/1-457)
6. The sixth element was those people whose close relative had been punished by the government for some crime. They became part of the rebels out of a spirit of revenge. These especially included those people whom Hazrat Uthman had exiled or imprisoned. Among them, Tabari has mentioned the names of Ka’b bin Dhi al-Hubka, Malik bin Abdullah, and Dabi bin Harith. It was this Dabi’s son, Umayr, who participated in your (Uthman’s) martyrdom and jumped on you, breaking several of your ribs. (Tabari – 35H/3/1-460)
7. The seventh element was those people who, on religious grounds, bore enmity towards Islam as a religion and wanted to eliminate it. This is the group that later became famous by names like Zanadiqa (heretics), Malahida (Atheists), etc. These people generally do not believe in any kind of ethics and are called Nihilists in the modern era.
8. The eighth element was those simple-minded, sincere people who were influenced by the rebels’ propaganda and joined them. Many of them did come with them, but when Hazrat Ali (R.A.) explained the situation to them, they turned back.
9. The ninth element was those people from non-Hijazi tribes who felt jealous of the authority of the Muhajireen and Ansar. This was fundamentally tribal prejudice. These people were aggrieved as to why the power was in the hands of the Muhajireen and Ansar instead of them. This is the very point Hazrat Ali (R.A.) had stated, that envy played a fundamental role in inciting these people to rebellion. (Tabari – 3/2-107)

The well-known historian Ibn Khaldun, analyzing this movement, writes:

At the time when Allah Almighty granted the Muslims complete victory and most countries came under the domain of the Islamic nation, the people of Arabia settled in Basra, Kufa, Syria, and Egypt, and in their border areas with other nations. Power was entrusted to those people who were distinguished by the honor of the companionship of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) and were complete followers of the guidance he gave—those who belonged to the Muhajireen, Ansar, Quraysh, and the people of Hijaz. The rest of the Arabs, like Banu Bakr bin Wa’il, ‘Abd al-Qays, Rabi’ah, Azd, Kindah, Tamim, and Quda’ah, etc., were not distinguished with this honor and dignity. They had not been blessed with the companionship of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him), and even if a few among them had received this companionship, it was very brief.

Since their share in the (Roman and Persian) conquests was greater, they began to consider themselves superior to the Sabiqoon al-Awwaloon companions and thought their own rights to be greater.

(In the era of ignorance – Jahiliyyah), these people were in doubt about prophethood, revelation, and the descent of angels. Then (when the war against Rome and Persia began, they became busy.) During the time of general mobilization, they did not feel this, but after the conquests, when the series of conquests had to be stopped for strategic reasons, they felt this matter: that people from the Muhajireen, Ansar, Quraysh, and other tribes were ruling over them. At this, they began to feel resentful in their hearts. Meanwhile, the final era of the caliphate of Amir al-Mu’mineen Uthman arrived. Now these people began to stretch their tongues in slander and abuse against the governors of the Islamic lands. They began to show laxity in the commands of the Amir al-Mu’mineen and started raising questions about administrative matters. Sometimes they would request the change of a governor, and sometimes they would appeal for the dismissal of some other official. In short, these people became bent on opposing Amir al-Mu’mineen Uthman in every way.

(Ibn Khaldun – Diwan al-Mubtada’ wa al-Khabar fi Tarikh al-‘Arab wa al-Barbar. 2/586. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. (www.waqfeya.com))

It should be clear that we have merely copied the names of the people mentioned above from Tarikh al-Tabari; however, we do not consider it correct to assassinate someone’s character merely on the basis of historical narrations. The names of these people are mostly transmitted in the narrations of Waqidi and Sayf bin Umar, who are not reliable in themselves. It is quite possible that these people were not as they have been described in historical narrations. Since the murderers of Uthman are a very notorious group, it is also possible that some narrator, due to his personal or tribal enmity, included someone’s name among the murderers of Uthman. It is incumbent upon us that we think well of every person (have husn-e-zann) and entrust his matter to Allah. Yes, if it is known about a person through tawatur (overwhelmingly recurrent testimony) that he committed a crime, then it can be believed.

Which Areas Became the Center of the Rebel Movement?

It is also a known and common fact that the centers of the rebels were Iraq and Egypt, and it was from here that a large number of them attacked Madinah. Now the question arises, what was the special characteristic of these areas that caused the rebel movement to flourish here, while it could not succeed in other cities? Here, it is also necessary to clarify that the entirety of Iraq or Egypt was not affected by the rebel movement; rather, there were only three cities that were affected by this movement, and these were the cities of Kufa, Basra, and Fustat (a part of present-day Cairo). The rebels tried to establish their foothold in many cities of the Islamic world, but they failed in this. However, in these three cities, they managed to get some companions, for which there were some specific sociological reasons.

We commonly observe that the crime rate is lower in old settlements, whereas crimes are more frequent in new settlements. The reason for this is that in old villages and neighborhoods, everyone knows each other, and people immediately become aware of any wrong trend, and then action is taken against it. This is why even if a criminal-minded person lives in these neighborhoods, he lives posing as a decent person and carries out his criminal activities outside the neighborhood. In contrast, in new settlements, people do not know each other, which is why murderers, kidnappers, prostitutes, gangsters, and people of this ilk come and settle here. Later, when these areas become well-populated and people start getting to know each other, then these criminal-minded people look for some other new settlement. This process sometimes takes fifty to a hundred years, or even more.

During the era of Hazrat Umar (R.A.), three large cities were established in the border areas, which were called Kufa, Basra, and Fustat. During the time of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), work began on the city of Kairouan in Tunisia. The need for these separate cities was felt because the conquered areas had a majority of non-Muslim populations. There was a danger that supporters of the former kings would also be present among them, who could create a problem at any time. The second problem was that it was difficult for the Arabs, who were accustomed to a desert lifestyle, to adjust to the cities. Places were also required for the army’s horses and camels where they could get their natural environment and also an abundance of fodder. For this reason, there was a need to establish large military cantonments in these areas so that Muslim rule could be stabilized here. It was for this purpose that these three cities were founded, which were fundamentally garrison towns.

As we see, non-military services are needed in military cantonments, which is why a large number of civilians also settle there. In our country, too, many civilians live in the cantonment area of almost every city. In that era, there was no division between military and civilian; rather, every person used to be militarily trained. During the time of Hazrat Umar (R.A.), a regular salaried army was established. With time, a large number of common people also began to live in these three cities. Since the settlements were new, criminal-minded and rebellious-minded people also came and settled here. These were the very people among whom the rebel movement found acceptance. According to the narrations found about Abdullah bin Saba, he visited many cities and tried to establish his foothold everywhere. He failed in all cities, but in these three cities, he found some companions.

Why Not Syria?

Here the question arises that rebellions did arise in the regions of Iraq and Persia because the Muslims had ended the Sasanian kingdom here, but why did this not happen in Syria (Sham)? Here too, the Muslims had defeated the Caesar of Rome and forced him to leave Syria. Then how did Syria become the center of Muslim power, and the rebel movement could not succeed here?

There are basically two reasons for this:

• One is that the governor of Syria, Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.), possessed extraordinary abilities. His intelligence system was very strong, and he had engaged the entire population here in a major activity. Rebellions generally arise in those areas where people are idle and have no work to do. Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) greatly developed industry in his region. He especially established the shipbuilding industry, in which thousands of people were employed. He paid special attention to the welfare of the public and kept them fully satisfied.⁶ A study of the life of Ibn Saba shows that he tried to establish a branch of his group in Syria as well, but Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) came to know about it very quickly. For this reason, he had to flee from there.
• The second reason was of a religious nature. In the region of Syria, there were two large sects of Christians, who were called Jacobites and Nestorians. The Caesar of Rome belonged to the Roman Catholic Church, which was the central sect of Christians at that time. The Jacobite and Nestorian sects differed from the Roman Catholic Church, due to which they were facing severe religious oppression. When the Muslims conquered Syria and Egypt, they breathed a sigh of relief. The Muslims had no interest in the internal differences of the Christians and granted all their sects complete religious freedom. Since the Muslims had become a source of mercy for the Christian sects of Syria, they did not stage any rebellion against them and, unlike the Persians, remained completely loyal to the Muslims.

Kufa: The Center of Conspiracies

The real center of the conspiracies was Kufa. There were such mischief-makers here who wanted to create anarchy.⁷ These were the same people who, even during the era of a strict administrator like Hazrat Umar (R.A.), did not desist from conspiring against their governors. It was not that all the inhabitants of Kufa were like this. Their vast majority was of good people who followed the deen (religion), however, the proportion of troublemakers in the population here was higher than in other cities.

They created the first disturbance here in 30 AH / 651 CE and killed a young man, Ibn Haysaman al-Khuza’i. A companion, Abu Shurayh (R.A.), who was his neighbor, was watching this incident. He raised an alarm and got these people arrested. The case was heard, and the governor of Kufa, Walid bin Uqba (R.A.), after asking Hazrat Uthman, had these troublemakers executed. Abu Shurayh (R.A.) had moved to Kufa so that he could participate in jihad. Seeing this situation, he sensed danger and returned to Madinah with his family. (Tabari – 35H/3/1-307)

It seems about the rebel movement that in this period its roots had spread quite far, and all those people who were apparently Muslims but hypocrites from within had become a part of it.

In this regard, Tabari has narrated the incident of a mysterious personality, ‘Amir bin ‘Abd Qays.

This gentleman’s habits were strange and peculiar. The accusation was leveled against him that he neither marries, nor participates in the Friday prayer, nor eats meat, and keeps his affairs secret. The governor of Basra, Sa’id bin ‘Amir, arrested him and sent him to Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.). He had him eat with him and asked him about these things. ‘Amir replied: “I do participate in the Friday prayer, but in the last row, and as soon as the prayer ends, I return. The issue of marriage is that wherever I send a marriage proposal, people also send their own proposal there, and the matter is not settled. I am in favor of eating meat, but I stopped eating meat from the time I saw a butcher dragging a goat, and instead of taking Allah’s name while slaughtering it, he kept saying ‘Hypocrisy, hypocrisy (nifaq, nifaq).'”

(Tabari – 35H/3/1-372)

This incident gives an idea of how many hypocrites were present in that society, and these were the very people who became the companions of the rebels. These would probably be those people who had malice for Islam in their hearts but, being overwhelmed by the power of Islam, had apparently accepted Islam. Now, when they saw a way in the form of the rebel movement, they kept joining it.

Walid bin Uqba was the most beloved personality in Kufa at that time because he used to provide for the common people, especially slaves and slave girls. (Tabari – 35H/3/1-285)

He was an administrator of the highest order and the conqueror of many areas of Armenia. Now the rebels resolved to defame him. Walid used to keep the door of his house open so that any complainant could come to him at any time. The rebels entered his house at night and stole his ring. Then they leveled the accusation of wine-drinking against Walid and, reaching Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), also presented witnesses against Walid, and presented the ring as proof of their testimony. Hazrat Uthman knew that the accusation was false, but judicial decisions are based on apparent evidence. Hazrat Uthman said: “We will establish the hadd (legal punishment) of Shari’ah. The place of a false witness is Hell. My brother! Be patient.” After this, he sentenced Walid to the punishment for drinking wine. 8(Tabari 35H/3/1-312)

Later, the followers of these same rebels fabricated that false narration according to which verse 6 of Surah Al-Hujurat was revealed about Walid bin Uqba. The purpose of this narration was also nothing but to defame Walid. Upon his dismissal, a wave of anxiety spread among the people of Kufa, and the slave girls recited elegies.

After this, Hazrat Uthman appointed Sa’id bin al-‘As (R.A.) as the governor of Kufa. Sa’id was also an orphan, and Hazrat Uthman had raised him. Hazrat Umar (R.A.), seeing his abilities, had kept him in multiple positions. Sa’id used to hold a special council in Kufa in which he would settle important matters. One day, some troublemakers were present in this council. During the conversation, harsh words were exchanged, and they beat a young man unconscious in front of Hazrat Sa’id. Among them, Malik Ashtar, Ibn Dhi al-Hubka, Jundab, Sa’sa’ah, Ibn al-Kawwa’ bin Kumayl, and ‘Umayr bin Dabi were prominent, and these are all people whose names are mentioned in the context of the murderers of Uthman. However, we cannot say anything with certainty because these are merely historical narrations, and one should not assassinate anyone’s character based on them. Hazrat Sa’id tried to handle the matter, but the turmoil in Kufa continued to spread. Hazrat Uthman wrote to him to exile these mischief-makers to Syria.

There, Hazrat Amir Mu’awiyah (R.A.) kept them under house arrest and treated them well, fed them breakfast and dinner with him, and consoled them. He tried his best to make them understand, but these people held intense malice in their hearts for the tribe of Quraysh, especially the Sahaba (R.A.). Here we are quoting the conversation of Hazrat Mu’awiyah with these people according to the narration of Tabari, which gives an idea of their internal state:

Mu’awiyah said:

“You are from the Arab nation, you gained honor through Islam, and on account of it, you prevailed over other nations, and their ranks and inheritance came to you. I have received information that you are angry with the Quraysh. If the tribe of Quraysh had not been there, you would have remained disgraced and humiliated just as you were before. [In the era of ignorance, the border tribes of Arabia were forced to live under Rome and Persia.]9 Your rulers have been a shield for you people until today. Therefore, do not separate yourselves from your shield. Your officials are currently being patient with your excesses and are tolerating the troubles given by you. By Allah! Desist from your actions, otherwise, Allah will impose upon you that ruler who will oppress and tyrannize you, and he will have no regard for patience and forbearance. In this way, you people, both in your life and after your death, will be considered partners and responsible with those people in oppressing the public.”

One rebel (probably Sa’sa’ah bin Sawhan):

Began to say that you mentioned the Quraysh, but the tribe of Quraysh is not in the majority in Arabia, nor was it the most powerful tribe in the era of ignorance, that you should frighten us with it. You mentioned the shield, so when the shield breaks, the field will be open for us.

Mu’awiyah: Began to say,

“Now I have realized that your own foolishness has compelled you to say these things. You are the representative of this group, but I do not see wisdom in you. I am clarifying the importance of the Islamic era to you and talking about it, while you are telling me things from the era of ignorance. I have only advised you, but due to your lack of wisdom, you are talking about the breaking of the shield. May Allah disgrace those people who gave importance to your affairs and conveyed it to the Caliph. Try to understand the matter. The Quraysh received honor in the era of ignorance and the era of Islam only due to Allah Tabaraka wa Ta’ala. There is no doubt that the tribe of Quraysh was not in the majority, nor was it the most powerful. But in terms of lineage and nobility, they were considered the most honorable. Their status was considered the most elevated, and in nobility and chivalry, they were the most perfect. In the era of ignorance, when one tribe was consuming another, at that time, by the grace of Allah, the Quraysh remained safe because whomever Allah grants honor, He does not humiliate…

…Then Allah willed that He should save those people whom Allah had granted honor from the humiliation of the world and the evil end of the Hereafter. For this purpose, He chose His best servant (Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him) and then selected the best companions for him. His best companions were from the Quraysh. Then they laid the foundation of this Islamic government, and this Caliph (Uthman) was appointed, and he was a suitable for it…

…O Sa’sa’ah! Your settlement was the worst settlement of Arabia, its produce was the most foul-smelling, and its valley was deep, which was so famous for evil and mischief. These people used to trouble their neighbors, and if even a noble person came and stayed here, he would only hear abuses and would be defamed. These people were very notorious throughout Arabia and used to quarrel with all nations. These people were subjects of the Persians when the invitation of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) reached them. Since you stayed in Oman instead of Bahrain, you did not even participate in the call of the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him). You are among the worst of your people.”

(Tabari, 35H/3/1-361)

The rebels were not ready to understand the words of Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) and kept saying, “You people are not competent for governance.” Ultimately, the matter escalated, and they attacked Hazrat Mu’awiyah and pulled him by the hair of his head and beard. At this, he said:

“Stop! This is not Kufa. By Allah! If the people of Syria come to know that you have done this to me, who is their ruler, I will not be able to save you from being killed by them. By my life! Your words resemble each other.” Saying this, he got up from near them and said: “By Allah! I will never summon you again.”

(Tabari – 35H/3/1-368)

After this, Hazrat Mu’awiyah wrote a letter to Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) in which he described these details of the mischief-makers:

“Amir al-Mu’mineen! You have sent people to me who speak with the tongue of Satan and receive guidance from Satan himself. They come to people and claim that they are presenting the teaching of the Quran. In this way, they mislead the Muslims because not every person can understand their real motive. Their aim is to spread division and discord, and they want to spread fitna and fasad (sedition and chaos). Islam is burdensome for them, and they are weary of it; rather, the slavery of Satan has penetrated their hearts. These people have corrupted many people around them in Kufa. I am afraid that if they stay among the people of Syria, they will corrupt the people here too with their magic of words (eloquence) and sinfulness. You send them back to their city so that they may live in the same city from which their hypocrisy sprouted. Wassalam.”

(Tabari – 35H/3/1-368)

From this letter of Hazrat Mu’awiyah, the real objective of the rebels can be estimated. The purpose of their movement was nothing other than to seize power by spreading sedition, chaos, and discord.

After this, he sent these people to the city of Homs in Syria, whose ruler was ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Khalid bin Walid, who was subordinate to Hazrat Mu’awiyah. He treated them in a manner befitting them and said:

“I do not know how I should address you. Are you Arabs or non-Arabs (‘Ajam)? Do not talk to me in the way I have been informed you used to talk to Mu’awiyah. I am the son of Khalid bin Walid, and he is the person whom those who test have tested. I am the son of the one who broke the back of the apostates. By Allah! O lowly Sa’sa’ah! If I find out that any companion of mine has broken your nose and then sucked your blood, I will blow you away.”

‘Abd al-Rahman humiliated them thoroughly, and when he himself rode out, he would make them run alongside on foot. Fed up, these rebels asked for forgiveness. Malik Ashtar presented himself to Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) and sought forgiveness. The kind-hearted Caliph forgave him and set him free. (Tabari – 35H/3/1-364)

On one occasion, the rebels made a plan to quietly martyr Hazrat Uthman (R.A.). Two rebels, ‘Umayr bin Dabi and Kumayl bin Ziyad, set off for Madinah and started keeping an eye on the Caliph’s routines. Kumayl, on one occasion, lay in ambush to attack Hazrat Uthman (R.A.). You (Uthman) sensed him and struck him first, which injured him. He raised a hue and cry:

“Amir al-Mu’mineen! You have injured me.” You said: “Did you not want to attack me suddenly?”

He said: “By that Allah who is my God! It was not so.” In the meantime, other people also gathered and intended to search him, but the Caliph stopped them and said: “By Allah! My thought was indeed that you came with the intention (to kill me). If I am truthful, Allah will grant a great reward, and if you are a liar, Allah will disgrace you.” Saying this, you sat on your feet and began to say: “Kumayl! You take revenge on me.” Saying this, you sat on your knees. He said: “I have left you (forgiven you).”

(Tabari – 35H/3/1-461)

In this way, this conspiracy also failed.

These incidents had no effect on the rebel movement; rather, they continued their activities secretly and succeeded in gathering some companions in Kufa, Basra, and Egypt. This suggests that the intelligence system at that time had become somewhat weak; otherwise, after these people had been caught, it would not have been difficult to trace their remaining companions. It seems that at that time, Hazrat Uthman, Mu’awiyah, Sa’id bin al-‘As, and ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Khalid bin Walid (R.A.) could not estimate the extent and depth of this movement, which had spread from within like an iceberg. For this reason, they did not give it much importance.

How Did the Rebel Movement Take Advantage of the Changing Social Conditions?

Some such social changes had already begun from the era of Hazrat Umar (R.A.), which the rebels took advantage of. By the last period of Hazrat Umar, many close companions of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) had departed from the world one after another, due to which the responsibility of educating and training the next generations fell upon the remaining companions. Their number was, in any case, limited, while the number of common people under their training was in the millions. This was why it became a difficult task to give individual attention to every person and train him religiously and morally. At this time, some people started groupings on tribal bases.

Hazrat Umar gave them a stern warning on this and said:

“I have received information that you people have formed (specific) groups. When two persons meet, it is said that he is from the companions of so-and-so, and he is from so-and-so. Such gatherings and circles have become numerous. By Allah! This thing is spreading rapidly in your religion. It is also interfering with your honor and dignity and your very selves. I am seeing that time when people who come after you will say: ‘This is the opinion of so-and-so.’ In this way, they will divide Islam into many parts. Make your gatherings vast and sit together. In this way, your unity and agreement will always be maintained, and your awe will be more established among other people. O Allah! It seems that these people have become weary of me. My feelings are different from their thoughts. I do not know what our state will be. I only know this much, that their connection is only with their own tribe. Lift me up to Yourself.”

(Tabari – 35H/3/1-461)

Hazrat Umar had placed this restriction on the Quraysh and Ansar that no one could settle in another city without his permission. The purpose of this restriction was that the center (Madinah) should remain strong and the children of the Sahaba Kiram be trained in a purely religious environment. In other cities, many non-Muslims and such people were settled, with whom intermingling posed a risk that some problems might arise in the next generation of the Sahaba Kiram. Along with this, there was also this issue that if the leaders of Quraysh went and settled in different areas, people would start gathering around them due to their generosity and character. It is possible that after one or two generations, these groups would take the form of political parties and create disunity in the Ummah.

It seems from the narrations that people were unhappy with this policy of Hazrat Umar. Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) changed this policy, and a large number of Muhajireen and Ansar left Madinah and settled in other cities. There were religious objectives in this, too, that the new Muslims in these cities should be religiously trained, and in worldly terms, there were jobs for these gentlemen in the administration of these areas, and there were also more business opportunities. Due to this policy, Hazrat Uthman had become very popular. (Tabari – 35H/3/1-454)

However, the result of this was that the manpower in the center of Madinah fell short, which the rebels took full advantage of.

Hazrat Ali, Talha, Zubair, and Sa’d (R.A.) bought lands in different areas and began to spend a large part of their income on the poor and needy of those areas, due to which these gentlemen became very popular in different areas. When Hazrat Ali became popular in Egypt, Hazrat Talha in Basra, and Hazrat Zubair (R.A.) in Kufa, people started saying things like the next Caliph would be Ali, or Talha, or Zubair. The rebels took advantage of this situation in such a way that they used the names of these same popular personalities and started misleading people by writing fake letters in their names.

During the eras of Hazrat Umar and Uthman (R.A.), immense wealth began to come into the Islamic world, first due to the conquests and then due to the kharaj (land tax) from the conquered lands. Due to this, those evils began to arise among the Arab youth which are bound to arise in the children of wealthy parents. Their time began to be spent in sports and spectacles, and it reached such a point that Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) had to take action. Many boys in Madinah and other cities had become fond of pigeon-flying and began to spend time in it. Sports and games are fine as long as they remain within a limit, but when this became excessive, Hazrat Uthman banned it. Some young men had also started using intoxicants. According to Tabari’s statement, except for Syria, these problems of wealth arose in the rest of the cities. (Tabari – 35H/3/1-456)

It is said that an idle mind is the devil’s workshop. Consequently, the rebels got the opportunity to mislead these young men.

How Did the Rebels Use the Weapon of Propaganda, and to What Extent Did It Succeed?

The principle of propaganda is to tell a lie so many times that people believe it to be true. How does this work? In the modern era, examples of this can be seen daily in the form of newspapers, editorials, columns, TV talk shows, and books. In ancient times, its methodology was somewhat different because the means of transport and means of communication were not so advanced.

We clarify this with an example:

Suppose you live in a city in the ancient era. Your contact with the outside world is established only through those people who travel to other cities for trade or some other purpose. Suddenly, a person comes traveling from outside. From his appearance, he looks very reliable and religious. With him are some other religious-looking people who testify to his piety and God-fearing nature. He says to you that I went to such-and-such city; the governor there is committing great oppression. In this way, he narrates a few incidents of this “oppression” to you. It is possible that you may not believe his words. After a few days, a second person comes and he too narrates similar stories. If ten or twelve such individuals come and narrate stories to you with this frequency, gradually you will start to be influenced by them and will become suspicious about the government of the other city.

Propaganda against Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) was done in this same way, and some people began to feel that we are in very good conditions, but in all other cities, the rulers are committing great oppression and tyranny.

The tales of oppression and tyranny were also very interesting. It was said that to obtain white fur for the Amir al-Mu’mineen, our goats are slaughtered, and their skins are removed. We kept tolerating even this, but now they take away every beautiful girl of ours. Apart from this, personal accusations were leveled against Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), such as that he practices nepotism, imposes people from his family into government positions, squanders the public treasury on his relatives, etc., etc.¹⁰ We will study all these accusations in separate sections.

This propaganda of the rebels was, on the whole, unsuccessful, and not very many people were influenced by it. The population of the Islamic world at that time must have been in the millions, while the population of these three cities, i.e., Basra, Kufa, and Egypt, was also in the hundreds of thousands at that time, but these rebels could hardly find a few thousand people. Due to his gentleness and forbearance, Hazrat Uthman was an extremely beloved Caliph.¹¹ If this propaganda had succeeded among the majority of the Muslim world’s population, so many people would never have come out for his qisas (retribution) that it would lead to war and battle. However, these few thousand revolutionaries did manage to do enough to martyr the oppressed Caliph and create fitna (sedition) in the Islamic world for a few years.

A special method of the rebels was that they used to write forged letters in the names of the Sahaba Kiram, and they would also put their signatures and seals at the bottom. Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) had a ring of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him), with which the Prophet (PBUH) used to put a seal. This ring, after him, was transferred among the Rashidun Caliphs and came to Hazrat Uthman. This ring had the status of the official seal, and the Rashidun Caliphs used to seal their letters with it. Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) was once sitting on the edge of a well.¹² The ring was in his finger, so it fell into the well. People searched for it in that well and took out all its water, but the ring was not found. It is possible that it fell into the hands of some agent of the rebels. Later, the rebels wrote forged letters in the name of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) on which this seal was affixed. It is also possible that they had a similar seal made. These rebels especially wrote false letters in the names of Hazrat Ali, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.). Their purpose was precisely that, on the one hand, a rebellion should be raised against Hazrat Uthman, and whatever wrong happened in it, the blame for it should fall on Hazrat Ali, Talha, and Zubair.

What Was the Role of Abdullah bin Saba?

According to Tabari’s narrations, Abdullah bin Saba belonged to Yemen. He was a Jew belonging to the Himyari tribes who apparently accepted Islam, and after that, he went to city after city and tried to organize the rebel movement there. He especially used to invite to this idea: that the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him) had made a will (wasiyyah) in favor of Hazrat Ali (R.A.), but the first three Caliphs had usurped his right.

(Tabari – 35H/3/1-388)

It was easy for people nurtured under monarchy to understand that the successor of a king should be from his family. In this way, Ibn Saba misused the name of Hazrat Ali (R.A.) and misled some people.

Some contemporary Shi’as deny the very existence of Ibn Saba. Their position is that all of Tabari’s narrations related to Ibn Saba are transmitted only from Sayf bin Umar, and we know about Sayf that he is a false narrator. However, this is not correct because narrations related to Ibn Saba are also present in Tarikh Ibn ‘Asakir, in which narrators other than Sayf bin Umar also narrate it.

Ibn ‘Asakir has discussed Ibn Saba under personality number 3306. He has mentioned many chains of narration (asanad) for the mention of Ibn Saba, a few of which we are citing here as examples. You can see for yourself that the name of Sayf bin Umar is not in any of them:

• أخبرنا أبو البركات الأنماطي أنا أبو طاهر أحمد بن الحسن وأبو الفضل أحمد بن الحسن قالا أنا عبد الملك بن محمد بن عبد الله أنا أبو علي بن الصواف نا محمد بن عثمان بن أبي شيبة نا محمد بن العلاء نا أبو بكر بن عياش عن مجالد عن الشعبي
• أنبأنا أبو عبد الله محمد بن أحمد بن إبراهيم بن الحطاب أنا أبو القاسم علي بن محمد بن علي الفارسي ح وأخبرنا أبو محمد عبد الرحمن بن أبي الحسن بن إبراهيم الداراني أنا سهل بن بشر أنا أبو الحسن علي بن منير بن أحمد بن منير الخلال قالا أنا القاضي أبو الطاهر محمد بن أحمد بن عبد الله الذهلي نا أبو أحمد بن عبدوس نا محمد بن عباد نا سفيان نا عبد الجبار بن العباس الهمداني عن سلمة بن كهيل عن حجية بن عدي الكندي
• أخبرنا أبو القاسم يحيى بن بطريق بن بشرى وأبو محمد عبد الكريم بن حمزة قالا أنا أبو الحسن بن مكي أنا أبو القاسم المؤمل بن أحمد بن محمد الشيباني نا يحيى بن محمد بن صاعد نا بندار نا محمد بن جعفر نا شعبة عن سلمة عن زيد بن وهب عن علي.

(Ibn ‘Asakir. Tarikh Madinah Dimashq. Maktabah Mishkat al-Islamiyah. Vol. 42. p. 222. Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. Vol. 29 p. 3. Personality No. 3306)

Link: http://www.almeshkat.net/books/open.php?cat=13&book=513

We are quoting one narration from Ibn ‘Asakir here with translation:

أخبرنا أبو بكر أحمد بن المظفر بن الحسين بن سوسن التمار في كتابه وأخبرني أبو طاهر محمد بن محمد بن عبد الله السنجي بمرو عنه أنا أبو علي بن شاذان نا أبو بكر محمد بن جعفر بن محمد الآدمي نا أحمد بن موسى الشطوي نا أحمد بن عبد الله بن يونس نا أبو الأحوص عن مغيرة عن سباط:

Hazrat Ali (R.A.) was informed that Ibn Sawda’ (Ibn Saba) speaks insultingly about Hazrat Abu Bakr and Umar (R.A.). He summoned him and called for a sword. (Or the narrator stated that) you intended to kill him. People interceded for him, so you said: “He will not stay in the city where I am.” Then he exiled him towards Mada’in.

(Ibn ‘Asakir. Tarikh Madinah Dimashq. Maktabah Mishkat al-Islamiyah. Vol. 42. p. 221.

Beirut: Dar al-Fikr. Vol. 29 p. 9. Personality No. 3306)

Link: http://www.almeshkat.net/books/open.php?cat=13&book=513

Not only Ahl al-Sunnah, but early Shia scholars also acknowledge the existence of Ibn Saba.

Here we are quoting all the narrations about Abdullah bin Saba from the famous book “Rijal al-Kashi” written on ‘Ilm al-Rijal (Science of Narrators) by the famous Shia scholar Muhammad bin Umar bin ‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Kashi (d. 385/995), in which the narrators of the Ahl al-Tashayyu’ (Shia) themselves have transmitted the statements of the Imams of Ahl al-Bayt about Abdullah bin Saba. We do not know what the grade of these chains of narration is according to them, but in any case, Sayf bin Umar is not present in their chain. These narrations are so numerous and diverse that they reach the level of tawatur (overwhelmingly recurrent testimony):

حدثني محمد بن قولوية، قال حدثني سعد بن عبدالله بن أبي خلف القمي قال حدثني محمد بن عثمان العبدي عن يونس بن عبد الرحمن عن عبدالله بن سنان قال حدثني أبي عن أبي جعفر عليه السلام:

Abu Ja’far (Muhammad al-Baqir) ‘alayhis salam said:

Abdullah bin Saba used to claim prophethood and believed that Amir al-Mu’mineen (Ali) ‘alayhis salam himself was Allah Ta’ala. When this reached Amir al-Mu’mineen ‘alayhis salam, he called him and asked him about it. He confessed to it and said: “Yes. You are He (Allah Ta’ala). It has been revealed into my heart that you are Allah and I am a prophet.” Amir al-Mu’mineen ‘alayhis salam said to him: “Woe to you. Satan has taken possession of you. Retract this statement of yours and repent.” He refused. You (Ali) imprisoned him and urged him to repent for three days. When he did not repent, you had him burned in fire and said: “Satan had led him astray. He used to come to him and put things into his heart.”

حدثني محمد بن قولوية، قال حدثني سعد بن عبدالله قال حدثنا يعقوب بن يزيد ومحمد بن عيسى عن ابن أبي عمير عن هشام بن سالم، قال سمعت أبا عبدالله عليه السلام يقول:

Abu ‘Abdullah (Ja’far al-Sadiq) ‘alayhis salam mentioned Abdullah bin Saba in front of his companions, that he claimed divinity for Amir al-Mu’mineen Ali bin Abi Talib. He stated: When he made this claim, Amir al-Mu’mineen ‘alayhis salam urged him to repent. He refused, so he (Ali) had him burned in fire.

حدثني محمد بن قولوية، قال حدثني سعد بن عبدالله قال حدثنا يعقوب بن يزيد ومحمد بن عيسى عن علي بن مهزبار عن فضالة بن أيوب الأزدي عن أبان بن عثمان ، قال سمعت أبا عبدالله عليه السلام يقول:

Abu ‘Abdullah (Ja’far al-Sadiq) ‘alayhis salam said: “May Allah Ta’ala curse Abdullah bin Saba. He used to claim divinity for Amir al-Mu’mineen ‘alayhis salam. By Allah! Amir al-Mu’mineen ‘alayhis salam was an obedient servant of Allah. Woe to that person who attributes lies to us. This group attributes such things to us which we do not say about ourselves. We are free from them in the sight of Allah. We are free from them in the sight of Allah.”

عن يعقوب بن يزيد عن ابن أبي عمير وأحمد بن محمد بن عيسى عن أبيه والحسين بن سعيد عن ابن أبي عمير عن هشام بن سالم عن أبي حمزة النمالي قال، قال علي بن حسين صلوات الله عليهما:

Hazrat Ali bin Husayn (Zayn al-‘Abidin) salawatullahi ‘alayhima said: “May Allah curse that person who fabricated a lie about Ali. When I remember Abdullah bin Saba, the hair on my body stands on end. He certainly claimed a very great matter which had no reality. Ali ‘alayhis salam was, by Allah! A righteous servant of Allah and the brother of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH). Whatever greatness he had, it was from Allah, and its basis was obedience to Allah and His Messenger. The Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) also received greatness only on account of obedience (to God).”

عن محمد بن خالد الطيالسي عن ابن أبي نجران عن عبدالله قال قال أبو عبدالله عليه السلام:

Abu ‘Abdullah (Ja’far al-Sadiq) ‘alayhis salam said: “We, the Ahl al-Bayt, are truthful. We will not spare any such liar who attributes lies to us and invalidates our truthfulness before the people with his lies. The Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) was the most truthful among people in speech and the greatest truthful one in all creation. Musaylimah fabricated lies about him. And Amir al-Mu’mineen ‘alayhis salam, after the Messenger of Allah, was the most truthful among the righteous people. That person who fabricated lies about him, denied his truthfulness, and leveled a false accusation against Allah, was Abdullah bin Saba.”

(Al-Kashi says:)

Some scholars have stated that Abdullah bin Saba was a Jew. He accepted Islam and became a supporter of Ali ‘alayhis salam. When he was a Jew, he used to exaggerate (ghuluww) about Hazrat Yusha’ bin Nun (Joshua son of Nun), who was the Wasi (successor) of Hazrat Musa (Moses) ‘alayhima al-salatu wa al-salam. When he entered Islam after the death of the Messenger of Allah (peace and blessings be upon him and his family), he began to say similar things about Ali ‘alayhis salam. He was the first person among those who became famous in this matter, who would announce the Imamate of Ali and declare his disassociation (bara’at) from his enemies, and would assassinate the character of his opponents and declare them infidels. It is from here that the opponents of the Shia got the opportunity to make claims, and they said that the origin of Tashayyu’ (Shi’ism) and Rafd (Rejectionism) is Judaism. In the city of Zutt, there was a group of seventy men who used to preach that Amir al-Mu’mineen ‘alayhis salam was God.

حدثني الحسين بن الحسن بن بندار القمي، قال حدثني سعد بن عبدالله بن أبي خلف القمي، قال حدثنا أحمد بن محمد بن عيسه وعبدالله بن محمد بن عيسى ومحمد بن الحين بن أبى الخطاب عن الحسن بن محبوب عن صالح بن سهل عن مسمع بن عبد الملك أبي سيار عن رجل عن أبي جعفر عليه السلام:

Abu Ja’far (Muhammad al-Baqir) ‘alayhis salam said: When Ali ‘alayhis salam finished the battle of the people of Basra (Battle of the Camel), seventy men from Zutt were brought to him. They spoke to him through their leader, and you refuted their leader’s words. You said to them: “I am not as you people are saying. I am but a servant of Allah and a created being.” They denied his words and said: “You are He (Allah Ta’ala).” You said to them: “If you people do not retract what you are saying and do not repent to Allah Ta’ala, I will most certainly kill you.” They refused to accept this. You commanded that a ditch be dug for them in which they would be killed. They dug the ditch and then filled it with clothes, then threw them into it, then when it was full, he set fire to it and made them enter that smoke. Those people died from it.

(Muhammad bin Umar bin ‘Abd al-‘Aziz al-Kashi. Ma’rifat Akhbar al-Rijal. Bombay: Matba’ Mustafawiyyah 1899. pp. 70-72)

From these narrations present in the ancient books of Ahl al-Sunnah and Ahl al-Tashayyu’, it is known that Ibn Saba was a real person. Dr. Sami ‘Ata Hasan of Jordan has written a research paper on the personality of Ibn Saba, in which he has discussed the existence of Ibn Saba and his followers with reference to an ancient narrator like Abu Mikhnaf. The followers of Ibn Saba were called “Saba’iyyah.”

(Sami ‘Ata Hasan. ‘Abdullah bin Saba al-Yahudi al-Yamani bayn al-Haqiqah wa al-Khayal. pp. 7-8. Jordan: Jami’ah Aal al-Bayt)

It is true that there is a fog surrounding the personality of Ibn Saba in the books of history. His detailed circumstances are not found in the books of history, nor should they be. After all, he was the don of a large mafia; if his personality became known to every Tom, Dick, and Harry, then what would be his genius in that? His nickname was also “Ibn Sawda’” (son of the black woman), the reason for which is stated to be that his mother was dark-skinned. Confusion was also spread in the use of this nickname, and it went so far that the companion of the Prophet, Sayyiduna ‘Ammar bin Yasir (R.A.), was declared to be Ibn Sawda’. This was all propaganda by those rebels, the purpose of which was to spread confusion.

It is known from the narrations of Sayf bin Umar that Ibn Saba came to Madinah as well, but his scheme did not succeed there. After that, he went to Syria; there he tried to mislead the esteemed companions Hazrat Abu Dharr Ghifari and Abu Darda’ (R.A.) but failed. For this, he tried to take advantage of a specific inclination of these gentlemen. The position of both these gentlemen was that it is not correct to accumulate wealth; rather, all wealth should be distributed among the poor and needy. In contrast, the position of the jumhur (majority) of the companions was that if Zakat is paid from the wealth and further sadaqat (charities) are given, then it is permissible to accumulate it. Ibn Saba tried to incite these gentlemen from this very aspect. Hazrat Abu Darda’ (R.A.) rebuked him and shooed him away, while Hazrat Abu Dharr Ghifari (R.A.) only did this much: he presented his position before Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.). In any case, Ibn Saba’s conspiracy failed. His call found success in Basra, Kufa, and Fustat. Eventually, he went and settled in Fustat and organized his movement from there.

The incident of Ibn Saba and seventy men of his party being presented before Hazrat Ali (R.A.) and then his being killed by burning, to the best of our knowledge, has only been transmitted in the books of the Ahl al-Tashayyu’, and it is from there that the Ahl al-Sunnah have also stated it in their books. We do not expect such a thing from an esteemed companion like Hazrat Ali (R.A.) that he would have done this. From the last narration, it appears that Ibn Saba’s death was from smoke.

What Steps Did the Government Take Against the Rebel Movement?

From the study of historical narrations, it appears that the government largely underestimated the rebel movement, due to which it could not be eradicated. Since this was the first secret movement in Muslim history, perhaps the government officials could not gauge its intensity. Since the attention of these gentlemen was more towards external conquests, the internal intelligence system could not be strengthened much. During the eras of Hazrat Umar and Uthman (R.A.), law and order was at such a level that a lone woman wearing jewelry would travel from Yemen to perform Hajj, but she would have no danger. This is why the need to establish intelligence was not felt. In our era, too, it happens that when a security flaw comes to light, only then are its arrangements tightened. In America, Europe, and the Arab countries, security was not so tight until 9/11, but when this incident occurred, only then did they make strict arrangements.

If this movement had been exposed at the time of Hazrat Umar’s (R.A.) martyrdom, it would have been uprooted in its very infancy, as per the maxim “kill the cat on the first day.” As you have read, some people from the Kufa chapter of this movement were arrested by Hazrat Sa’id bin al-‘As, and on the instruction of Hazrat Uthman, they were sent to Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.). He explained to them very gently, but they showed rebelliousness. He then handed them over to ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Khalid bin Walid, who was strict with them, and these people were forced to repent. Unfortunately, during the investigation of these people, their other companions could not be traced, due to which this movement became even stronger.

In any case, this was an Intelligence Failure.

The governor of Basra, Sa’id bin ‘Amir (R.A.), had also arrested the local leader of the rebel movement, Hakim bin Jabala. From his investigation, too, his further companions could not be traced, due to which the Basra chapter also became strong.

The biggest gap is seen in the security measures of Egypt, where this movement became very strong. The basic reason for this was that the local residents of Alexandria had rebelled twice, to suppress which Hazrat ‘Amr bin al-‘As (R.A.) had to go there. After that, the governor of Egypt, Hazrat Sa’d bin Abi Sarh (R.A.), focused more attention on conquering Libya and Sudan. Due to the rebellions and further conquests, the government’s attention could not remain on internal matters. Muhammad bin Abi Bakr and Muhammad bin Abi Hudhayfa openly expressed their views there, but they were only warned, and no serious action was taken against them. It is known about Ibn Saba that he received the most acceptance in Egypt, and it was by staying there that he organized the entire movement.

On this occasion, it would be appropriate to also state the details of that magnificent action of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), which is a high example of “self-accountability.”

What happened was that when the false accusations of the rebels against the governors reached him, he had these accusations investigated. During the eras of Hazrat Umar and Uthman (R.A.), it was a tradition that all governors would gather on the occasion of Hajj, and on this occasion, every person was allowed to present his complaint against the governor. Apart from this, any person, at any time, could reach Madinah and complain against his governor. In this way, the governors also remained in awe that they were not above accountability. Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) appointed these gentlemen for the investigation of the accusations against the governors:

• Kufa: Muhammad bin Maslamah
• Basra: Usama bin Zayd
• Syria: ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar
• Egypt: ‘Ammar bin Yasir (R.A.)

All of these companions were extremely esteemed. Hazrat Muhammad bin Maslamah Ansari had been the head of the accountability department for a long time. Hazrat Usama bin Zayd was an expert warrior. The piety (taqwa) of Hazrat ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar is well-known, and Hazrat ‘Ammar bin Yasir was among the Sabiqoon al-Awwaloon, and his parents are counted among the first martyrs of Islam. (May Allah be pleased with them).

Except for Hazrat ‘Ammar, all the other companions went to the relevant areas, conducted investigations, and returned to present their report in front of the common people of Madinah, which was something like this:

“O people! We did not see any objectionable thing there, nor do the notable or common people there have knowledge of any unpleasant matter. The Muslims have authority over their affairs, their rulers judge between them with justice and fairness, and take care of them.”

(Tabari – 35H/3/1-387)

Hazrat ‘Ammar bin Yasir (R.A.) could not return. Since the Egyptian chapter of the rebels was strong and Ibn Saba was present there himself, the danger arose that the rebels might have martyred him. A letter from the governor of Egypt, ‘Abdullah bin Abi Sarh (R.A.), came to Madinah, in which it was written that a group from Egypt has inclined Hazrat ‘Ammar towards them, and people have started gathering around him, among whom are ‘Abdullah bin Sawda’ (Saba), Khalid bin Muljam, Sudan bin Hamran, and Kinanah bin Bishr.

(Tabari – 3/1-388)

Exaggerating narrators (ghali rawiyun) like Sayf bin Umar have made Hazrat ‘Ammar bin Yasir (R.A.) a special target and fabricated narrations about him. Their purpose was to prove Hazrat ‘Ammar as an opponent of Hazrat Uthman and to show him as a member of their rebel movement. The rebels would also have needed this, to show at least some companions as their associates so that their movement could get a certificate of justification. The narration stated above is also of the same nature, which Sayf bin Umar has narrated. It is quite possible that the rebels, who were masters in the art of forgery, wrote this letter themselves in the name of Ibn Abi Sarh in order to sow discord among the companions of the Messenger, or that false information was conveyed to Ibn Abi Sarh. The possibility also exists that Hazrat ‘Ammar (R.A.) was imprisoned by the rebels and then he was made famous as “Ibn Sawda’.”

When Hazrat ‘Ammar (R.A.) was somewhat delayed in returning, these rebels spread a rumor about him that he had joined them. In another narration, Hazrat ‘Ammar himself has been declared “Ibn Sawda’.” In a narration by Sayf bin Umar himself, the reason stated for this is that a fight occurred between Hazrat ‘Ammar and ‘Abbas bin ‘Utbah bin Abi Lahab, for which Hazrat Uthman gave him some symbolic punishment.

Now the question arises: is a symbolic punishment such a thing that a companion who accepted Islam in the very beginning, who saw his parents being martyred in front of him, and then also bore the beatings of the infidels of Makkah himself, would, in his old age, leave the Caliph of the time and all the Sahaba Kiram and join the rebels? If it were so, other companions like Hazrat Ali, Talha, Zubair, Sa’d (R.A.) would at least have reprimanded him, but there is no narration of any such incident.

When reports reached Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) from various regions that their rulers had never oppressed anyone and this was all propaganda by the rebels, he sent a letter to different cities:

“I have appointed for the rulers that they must meet me during every Hajj season. Since I have been appointed Caliph, I have established this principle for the Muslim Ummah: that good should be enjoined and evil deeds forbidden. Therefore, whatever right is presented before me or my appointed rulers, that right will be fulfilled. The rights of the common people take precedence over the rights of my family and children. The people of Madinah have come to know that some people are abusing us, and some people have adopted the path of beating. To criticize secretly, to abuse, and to beat is a very bad thing. Whoever is a claimant of any right, he should come during the Hajj season and get his right, whether it is to be taken from me or from my appointed rulers. If you people forgive, then in that case, Allah will give a good reward to the forgivers.”

When this letter was read out in the cities, the common people began to weep, and they prayed for Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) and began to say that the signs of a national-level calamity are now visible. This shows the degree to which you (Uthman) were popular among the common people.

Now, to solve the problem, Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) convened a conference of the governors of the relevant regions, which included Hazrat Mu’awiyah (Governor of Syria), ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amir (Governor of Basra), ‘Abdullah bin Sa’d bin Abi Sarh (Governor of Egypt), Sa’id bin ‘As (Governor of Kufa). Along with them, Hazrat ‘Amr bin al-‘As (conqueror and former governor of Egypt) (R.A.) was also included in the consultation. Hazrat Ali, Talha, Zubair, and Sa’d bin Abi Waqqas (R.A.) were also fully involved in the consultation.

Sa’id bin ‘As advised to deal with these rebels strictly and have them killed. Ibn Abi Sarh advised gentleness, that the hearts of these rebels should be won over by giving them something. Hazrat Mu’awiyah stated that there is no turmoil in his region, and he did not consider it appropriate to interfere in the regions of other governors. ‘Amr bin al-‘As, however, criticized the policy of gentleness of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) and said that you gentlemen, like Hazrat Abu Bakr and Umar (R.A.), should be strict where strictness is required, and use gentleness on the occasion of gentleness.

After this, Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) announced his decision:

“I have heard the advice you gentlemen have given me. There is a way to accomplish every task. That thing which this Ummah fears is bound to happen. The door of this fitna (sedition) that is closed will be tried to be kept closed through gentleness, reconciliation, and obedience; however, the hudood (limits) and laws of Allah will be protected. If this door of fitna is to be kept closed, then the method of gentleness is better. However, this (if it is to open) will certainly open, and no one will be able to stop it. Allah knows that I have not been negligent in any way for the good of the people and my own self. By Allah! The millstone of fitna and fasad (chaos) will certainly come into motion. How good it is for Uthman that he departs from this world before initiating this fitna. You people must stop (the fitna), fulfill the rights of those people (the rebels), and keep forgiving them. However, do not be lazy in the fulfillment of the rights of Allah.”

(Tabari – 3/1-388-389)

From this sermon, it is known that the opinion of Sayyiduna Uthman Ghani (R.A.) was that if strictness was used, the fitna and fasad would spread more, and the rebels would get the opportunity to wail about oppression being committed against them. We see that in our era, too, when the government cracks down on thieves, robbers, and rebels, they raise a “we are dead, we are looted” type of hue and cry. You (Uthman) adopted this strategy: that the rebels be given full rights, gentleness be shown to them, and when they start creating fitna and fasad, they should be stopped with force.

The opinion of some people is that this strategy was an ijtihadi (juristic reasoning) mistake of the government. If strictness had been used at that time, these rebels would have been eradicated right there, and the later fitnas would not have arisen.

In our opinion, Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) made a very wise decision because if he had gotten the rebels killed at that time, their remnants would have gotten the cloak of “victimhood” forever, and a few “martyrs” would have been available. Then their surviving companions would have cashed in on this and incited many more people to rebellion, and it is quite possible that a much bigger fitna would have occurred.

In our times, the example of military action taken in several areas is before everyone: by killing a few rebels, an entire separatist movement arose. In exactly the same way, this is what happened in the case of the rebellion in East Pakistan: after the killing of a few rebels, the flames of rebellion flared up badly. The position of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) was that the first move should not be from his side. Then, he did not expect the events that occurred later. His maximum expectation was that the rebels would martyr him, and then this chaos would be brought under control.

Among these governors, Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) correctly estimated the events that were to occur in the future. When he was about to return, he said to Hazrat Uthman (R.A.):

“Amir al-Mu’mineen! Before those people attack you who have no connection to you, you come with me to Syria, because the people of Syria are still obedient.” Hazrat Uthman replied: “I will not sell the neighborhood of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) in exchange for anything, even if my jugular vein is cut because of it.” Mu’awiyah said: “I will send an army to you which will stay near the people of Madinah, so that if any sudden accident happens in Madinah or with you, it will be of use at that time.” The Caliph said: “By stationing this army here, I will have to face constriction in the sustenance of the neighbors of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH).” Mu’awiyah said: “Amir al-Mu’mineen! By Allah, you will either be attacked suddenly, or you will have to fight.” You (Uthman) said: “Allah is sufficient for me, and He is the best Disposer of affairs.”

(Tabari – 3/1-393)

After this, Hazrat Mu’awiyah came to Hazrat Ali, Sa’d, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.), greeted them, and stood leaning on his bow and said to them:

“When (in the era of ignorance) a few people used to dominate the people, at that time in every family and tribe of yours, there were people who used to rule as autocratic and absolute chiefs of their nation. They did not consult anyone. Then when Allah Tabaraka wa Ta’ala sent His Prophet (PBUH) and granted honor to those who followed him, after that, they began to appoint rulers through mutual consultation. In this matter, they used to give preference to their precedence in accepting Islam, past services, and personal ability and effort (i.e., they made decisions correctly on merit). If in the future, too, they adopt this method and remain firm on this method, their rule will remain intact, and people will follow them. If they become worldly and engage in worldly pursuits through force, this blessing will be snatched from them, and Allah Ta’ala will re-establish the chieftaincy system among them. And if this does not happen, then there will also be the fear of the domination of foreigners because Allah Ta’ala has the power to change, and He has all kinds of authority over His creation. I am leaving this elder (Uthman) entrusted to you. Treat him well and cooperate with him. It is because of this that you will be fortunate.”

After this, Hazrat Mu’awiyah bid farewell to them. Hazrat Ali said: “In my opinion, this news (that there is a threat of rebellion) is not correct.” Hazrat Zubair said: “No, by Allah! The greatness this man (Mu’awiyah) has in our and your hearts today, he never had before.” (May Allah be pleased with them)

(Tabari – 3/1-391)

From this incident, the sincerity between Hazrat Mu’awiyah and the other companions (R.A.) can be estimated. Exaggerating and biased narrators have shown their “artistry” here as well and have fabricated such narrations according to which, on this occasion, greed had arisen in the heart of Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) that he should pave the way for his own caliphate, and Hazrat Ali (R.A.) had warned him.

When these governors returned, they started monitoring the rebels, due to which their mutual contacts were cut off. Fed up with this, the rebels decided to revolt in all three cities—Basra, Kufa, and Fustat—on the same day. Out of these, they could only gather some people in Kufa, but there the command of the Muslim armies was in the hands of a great hero like Hazrat Qa’qa’ bin ‘Amr (R.A.). This is the same Qa’qa’ who played an extraordinary role in the conquest of Persia, and in his bravery and war strategy, he can be counted among the most esteemed commanders after Hazrat Khalid bin Walid (R.A.). When Hazrat Qa’qa’ gained control over these rebels, they began to procrastinate and said that we only want a change of governor. They presented this demand before Hazrat Uthman, so you accepted this as well and appointed Abu Musa Ash’ari (R.A.) as the governor of Kufa in place of Hazrat Sa’id bin al-‘As, thus completing the final argument against them. The first sermon that Hazrat Abu Musa gave after going there, he said:

“O people! Do not run for such things. Do not talk like this in the future; rather, support your government and adopt obedience and compliance. Avoid hasty actions; rather, work with patience. You should understand that there is an Amir (leader) above you.” The people said: “You lead us in prayer.” He said: “I will not lead the prayer until you people affirm to listen to and obey the commands of Uthman bin ‘Affan.” They said: “We affirm obedience to Uthman.”

(Tabari – 3/1-377)

Now the rebels had no way left by which they could advance their operation. Finally, they decided to act on their last plan.

What Was the Rebels’ Final Plan, and Did It Succeed?

When a significant number of rebels had gathered, they made a simple plan to take over the government of the Islamic world, which had four stages:

1. First stage: Remove Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) and install a nominal Caliph on the throne of power, and seize power themselves behind this veil.
2. Second stage: Appoint weak governors and rule the provinces themselves behind their veil.
3. Third stage: Complete control over the power and wealth of the Islamic world.
4. Fourth stage: To reverse that process of the spread of Islam which the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) had started and which the first three Caliphs had brought to its peak.

It should be clear that the majority of the rebels had only the first three stages in view, but a part of their leadership also wanted the completion of the fourth stage. This was the same group whose leadership was in the hands of Abdullah bin Saba. In this way, the rest of the rebels were actually being used by Ibn Saba.

It was not possible for these rebels to place one of their own companions on the throne of power because then no one would accept him. The senior companions were very popular in that era. Hazrat Uthman, Ali, Talha, Zubair, and Sa’d (R.A.) bought lands with their income and began to spend the income from them on the common people. It is known about Hazrat Zubair (R.A.) that people used to deposit trusts with him. As soon as someone deposited money with him, he would distribute it among the poor and needy, and when that person came back to ask for it, he would return this money to him from the income of his business. The entire income of Hazrat Talha’s (R.A.) property was endowed for works of this kind, and he was famous among the people by the title of “Talha al-Khayr” (Talha the Good). The case of Hazrat Ali (R.A.) was also the same. All these gentlemen used to buy and free slaves with their own money. The custom of Arabia was that the freed slave was considered a part of the family of the one who freed him. These people were called Mawali (singular: Mawla). Hazrat Talha’s popularity was in Basra, Hazrat Zubair’s in Kufa, and Hazrat Ali’s in Egypt. Since the rebel movement had spread more in these very regions, these rebels decided to use the popularity of these senior companions in their own favor.

These rebels made a plan that a group of theirs would go out and besiege Madinah Munawwarah right at the time of Hajj, when most of the young men would have gone for Hajj and there would be no one left in Madinah to fight. Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) would be deposed, and if that was not possible, he would be killed. After that, one of the remaining esteemed companions, i.e., Ali, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.), would be made Caliph, and their own associates would be appointed to supervise them, who would stick with them at all times and make them take actions of their own (the rebels’) choice. The Egyptian rebels wanted to make Hazrat Ali Caliph, the Kufans Hazrat Zubair, and the Basrans Hazrat Talha. Their intention was that when they had their Caliph of choice made, they would then force him to appoint such people as governors who were weak in administration, and in exactly the same way, their own associates would be attached to them as well. In this way, the Caliph and his governors would dance to their tunes like puppets, and the real government would be in their hands. Another benefit of this for the rebels would be that the blame for the martyrdom of Hazrat Uthman would fall on the person who was made Caliph.

The Muslim armies were busy far away from Madinah on the border regions, and they required at least one to one and a half months’ time to arrive. In this way, the rebels were sure that their plan would succeed and they would complete their control over the Islamic world. But they had no idea that the companions trained by the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) would turn their plans to dust. War is such a matter that it is possible for one party to initiate it, but it is not in its control to control the reaction of the opposing party. After that, the war determines its own path. The rebels did take action, but after that, the way Hazrat Ali, Talha, Zubair, ‘A’ishah, Mu’awiyah, Hasan, and many other companions (R.A.) turned their plans to dust is a bright chapter of Islamic history. This is why the rebels have not forgiven their “fault” to this day, and people influenced by their propaganda are seen assassinating the character of these very companions even today. Some of their groups cast aspersions on Hazrat Ali and Hasan, and other groups on Hazrat Talha, Zubair, ‘A’ishah, and Mu’awiyah (R.A.). They have intense grief over why these gentlemen took timely action and did not let their plan succeed. They are seen bursting the blisters of their hearts in the veils of historical narrations.

Influenced by the false historical narrations of these same rebels or those influenced by them, many sincere Muslims, regardless of which sect they belong to, come to believe that the Sahaba Kiram fought among themselves and thousands of Muslims were killed, whereas the reality is completely different from this. These Sahaba Kiram remained “one soul in many bodies” just as in the era of the Prophet; they did not fight any war among themselves, but rather, they foiled the conspiracy of the rebels in a very wise manner and were completely successful in it. The poor rebels, after that, just kept fighting a war for their own survival. Many readers will be startled by this claim of ours because the battles of Jamal (Camel) and Siffin did, after all, take place. The reality is that although these wars happened, it was, in fact, due to them that the strength of the rebels was broken, and their plan could not succeed. These wars were not mutual civil wars of the Sahaba Kiram; rather, they were, in fact, their war against the rebels. No companion was at fault in these wars; rather, they shattered the strength of the rebels with great wisdom.

Insha’Allah, in the answers to the questions related to the era of Hazrat Ali (R.A.), we will clarify the details of this in such a way that any student of history can check them himself and reach the real truth. But before that, it is necessary to get the answers to some questions related to the martyrdom of Hazrat Uthman Ghani (R.A.).

What Action Did the Rebels Take in Madinah?

There were three groups of rebels who came from Basra, Kufa, and Egypt. They camped outside Madinah at the places of Dhu Khushub, A’was, and Dhu al-Marwah, respectively. Some of their representatives came to the Mothers of the Believers, Sayyiduna Ali, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.) and tried to get them to join. They (the companions) rebuked these rebels and shooed them away. After that, they came and besieged Madinah. Hazrat Ali (R.A.) came out on this occasion with the Muhajireen and Ansar and, after negotiating with them, convinced them to end the siege and leave. On this occasion, this demand of the rebels was also accepted: that their governors be changed. On their demand, Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) appointed Muhammad bin Abi Bakr as the governor of Egypt. Now the rebels had no excuse, so they had to turn back.

After going some distance, they returned and showed a forged letter, in which it was written to the then-governor of Egypt, ‘Abdullah bin Abi Sarh, that when these people reach Egypt, they should be killed. Among those who showed this letter, the people of Basra and Kufa were prominent. Hazrat Ali said to them that you people had gone in different directions, so only the people of Egypt should have come with the letter. How did the rebels of Basra and Kufa know that the people of Egypt had intercepted a letter? From this, it is clear that you had made this plan right from Madinah.

(Tabari 3/1-377)

The rebels gained control of the city, but Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) himself still used to lead the prayer (imamat). In that era, the concept did not exist that anyone other than the Caliph or his appointed ruler could lead the prayer. During this same time, Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) wrote letters to the governors of Basra, Kufa, Syria, and Egypt requesting troops, but it was too late now. The arrival of armies from all these regions required at least one to one and a half months. Some people of Madinah showed enthusiasm for fighting the rebels, among whom Sa’d bin Malik, Abu Hurayrah, Zayd bin Thabit, and Hasan bin Ali (R.A.) were prominent, but Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) did not give them permission for this because he did not like to endanger any Sahib-e-Iman (person of faith) for the sake of his own life.

One day, during the Friday prayer, Hazrat Uthman gave a sermon, so the rebels pelted him with stones, which made him unconscious. After this, the rebels stopped him from leading the prayer, and the rebel leader Ghafiqi stood up to lead the prayer. After this, at different times, Hazrat Ali, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.) used to lead the prayers.

The rebels continuously kept spreading propaganda against Hazrat Uthman in Madinah Munawwarah and leveling false accusations against him. One day, on the advice of Hazrat Ali, Uthman (R.A.) came to the mosque and announced with utmost humility and modesty that if he had made any mistake, he repents for it in the presence of Allah Ta’ala. You (Uthman) said:

“O people! By Allah, whoever among you has criticized, I am unaware of it. Rather, the things I have done, I am aware of them. However, my nafs (soul) instigated me and deceived me, due to which my sense was lost. In any case, I have heard the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) say: ‘Whoever slips, let him repent, and whoever makes a mistake, let him also repent, and let him not proceed towards destruction, because whoever continues to oppress (his own soul) will stray far from the straight path.’ Therefore, I am the first to accept advice. I seek forgiveness from Allah for my actions, and I repent before Him.”

“Now I have sought forgiveness and have repented, so your honorable gentlemen should come to me and express their opinion. By Allah! If Allah Ta’ala makes me a slave, I will walk in the manner of a slave and will adopt the humility of that slave who is patient in the state of slavery and thanks Allah upon being freed. The reality is that there is no refuge from Allah except towards Him; then, one must return to Him. Therefore, your righteous individuals should not refrain from coming to me. If my right hand refuses, my left hand will follow it.”

(Tabari – 3/1-412)

Hearing this, the people of Madinah were overcome with emotion, and everyone began to cry. The Caliph of the time was not at fault, but he still repented as a humble servant, but the rebels wanted to depose him at any cost. Hazrat Sa’id bin Zayd (R.A.) said to him: “Amir al-Mu’mineen! He who is not with you will not join you. Therefore, you yourself keep fearing Allah Ta’ala regarding yourself and fulfill what you have said.”

Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) used to take the support of a staff while giving the sermon. This was the staff of the Messenger of Allah (PBUH), which, after him, came into the hands of his Rashidun Caliphs.

One day, a rebel, Jahjah Ghifari, snatched this staff from him and broke it.

The rebels continuously kept demanding his deposition. One day, they made a lot of noise and commotion. Hazrat Muhammad bin Maslamah Ansari (R.A.) thought that these people were about to attack. Consequently, he and Hazrat Ali (R.A.) stood up. They reasoned with these rebels and sent them back.

(Tabari – 3/1-430)

The rebels started another propaganda: taking the names of the senior companions, they started spreading this disinformation about them: that they were with them (the rebels). Among them, Hazrat Talha, ‘Ammar bin Yasir, and ‘Amr bin al-‘As (R.A.) were prominent. Consequently, this very disinformation spread by them is present in the narrations of Tabari, etc.

(Tabari – 3/1-434)

Marwan bin al-Hakam was Hazrat Uthman’s (R.A.) cousin. He was very fiery and wanted to fight the rebels. The effort of Hazrat Ali (R.A.) was that the matter should be settled through reconciliation so that time could be gained and the armies that had set out from the provinces could reach Madinah. Due to this, he also had a bitter exchange, and he warned Hazrat Uthman to control Marwan, lest his fervor spoil the matter. On one occasion, these people from Banu Umayyah also had a bitter exchange with Hazrat Ali because he wanted to settle the matter only through reconciliation. It occurred to some people that perhaps he (Ali) was paving the way for his own caliphate by encouraging the rebels, and they also leveled this accusation against Hazrat Ali. In this, too, the rebels’ propaganda was working, as they wanted to put the blame for the martyrdom of the Caliph of the time on other companions.

(Tabari – 3/1-417)

It is quite possible that the associates of these rebels who were working in Madinah were going to these gentlemen (Uthman’s supporters) and leveling accusations against Hazrat Ali, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.).

One day, the rebels attacked the house of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) and set its gates on fire. They kept throwing flammable material at your house all night, which burned the gates. Marwan bin al-Hakam and his companions wanted to fight, but Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) stopped them and said:

“After the fire has been set, nothing should be done now because the wood and the gates have burned. Whoever is obedient to me should only save his own house, because these people are only after me. By Allah! They will soon be very remorseful over my murder. Even if they leave me, they will know even then that I have no greed for life. My condition has become very bad, my teeth are broken, and my bones have become frail.”

(Tabari – 3/1-436)

At that time, Marwan was a young man, and his blood was hot (he was hot-blooded). Despite this (Uthman’s order), he attacked the rebels, as a result of which he himself was severely injured. The rebels now engaged in such a degree of cruelty that they even cut off the water to Hazrat Uthman’s (R.A.) house. Now, no necessities could go to your house. One day, the Mother of the Believers, Sayyida Umm Habiba (R.A.), placed a waterskin and tried to go to the Caliph’s house, but the rebels cut the rope of her mule. She was about to fall when people came and saved her. Only Hazrat Ali (R.A.) was able to get the opportunity to risk his life to keep delivering necessary items to Hazrat Uthman (R.A.).

(Tabari – 3/1-441 to 442)

Hazrat Ali (R.A.) said to these rebels:

“O people! The actions you are committing are neither like those of the believers nor those of the disbelievers. Do not stop the necessities for this gentleman, because even the people of Rome and Persia who are captured are provided with food and drink. This gentleman (Uthman) has not even fought you, so for what reason do you deem it permissible to besiege him and kill him?”

(Tabari – 3/1-436)

The rebels were also intimidated by Hazrat Ali (R.A.) because many of their companions had come along with them in his (Ali’s) name. Even in this situation, Hazrat Uthman sent ‘Abdullah bin ‘Abbas (R.A.) as the Amir al-Hajj (leader of the pilgrimage), who had been guarding Hazrat Uthman’s door. He (Ibn Abbas) even submitted: “Amir al-Mu’mineen! By Allah, performing jihad against these people is more beloved to me than performing Hajj.” But Hazrat Uthman ordered him to leave for Hajj.

(Tabari – 3/1-442)

It seems from the narrations that Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) had become certain of his martyrdom. His view was that the matter would end with his being martyred. In the meantime, government armies would arrive from Kufa, Basra, and Syria, and the people of Madinah would get relief from the rebels. This is why you (Uthman) ordered every person to save his own life. You summoned Hazrat Zubair (R.A.) and gave him some last testaments (wasiyyah).

One day, the rebels attacked Hazrat Uthman’s (R.A.) house. At the door were Hazrat Hasan bin Ali, ‘Abdullah bin Zubair, Muhammad bin Talha, Marwan bin al-Hakam, and Sa’id bin al-‘As (R.A.). When they began to fight the rebels, Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) forbade them from inside.

(Tabari – 3/1-443)

You yourself came out, took your companions inside, and closed the door. After this, Mughira bin Akhnas and Abu Hurayrah (R.A.) along with their companions confronted them, in which Mughira was martyred.

One day, Hazrat Uthman was in his house, and Hazrat Husayn bin Ali (R.A.) was with him. Hazrat Uthman said to him: “Your father is occupied with a most important matter. I adjure you by oath that you go to him.” Then you (Uthman) began to recite the Holy Quran. In the meantime, some rebels burst into your house, among whom the name of Muhammad bin Abi Bakr has also been mentioned. He acted disrespectfully towards the Caliph and grabbed his beard. You (Uthman) said: “The thing you have grabbed and the way you have treated me, your father (Hazrat Abu Bakr) would not have grabbed it, nor would he have behaved like this.” Hearing this, Muhammad bin Abi Bakr became very ashamed and went outside. His other companions martyred the oppressed Caliph. This happened while you were reciting the Holy Quran. Your blood fell on this verse of the Holy Quran:

فَسَيَكْفِيكَهُمْ اللَّهُ وَهُوَ السَّمِيعُ الْعَلِيمُ

“Soon Allah will suffice you against them, and He is the All-Hearing, the All-Knowing.”

(Tabari – 3/1-449)

This manuscript is still preserved in the museum in Tashkent, and this mark is still found on this noble verse.

According to the narrations of Tabari, Baladhuri, and Ibn Sa’d, a rebel leader, Ghafiqi, struck Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) with an iron rod and also kicked his copy of the Quran. This indicates that these were atheist-like people, and they had no respect for Islam or the Quran in their hearts. Another rebel, Sudan bin Hamran, struck Hazrat Uthman with a sword. His wife, Sayyida Na’ila (R.A.), caught it with her hand, which cut her fingers. Some of Hazrat Uthman’s freed slaves also lived in his house. When they resisted, one of them was also killed. One rebel was also killed at the hands of a slave. After this, these people fled.

(Tabari – 3/448)

On this occasion, Zayd bin Suhan, the brother of the famous rebel Sa’sa’ah bin Suhan, said:

“Today, hatred has spread in the hearts. By Him in Whose hand is my life, love will not arise in these hearts now until the Day of Resurrection.”

(Ibn ‘Asakir – 59/490)

Among the children of the esteemed companions, Hazrat Husayn (R.A.) was the last person who met with Hazrat Uthman (R.A.). When Hazrat Uthman’s funeral procession was lifted, these rebels sat in the path and started throwing stones at his bier. The rebels wanted him to be buried in the Jewish cemetery instead of Jannat al-Baqi’. On this occasion, Hazrat Ali (R.A.) came forward, and due to his efforts, the rebels gave permission to bury his body.

(Tabari – 3/1-472)

How Did the Rebels Martyr Hazrat Uthman in the Presence of the Sahaba Kiram?

This question arises in the mind of a student of history: how did the rebels martyr Hazrat Uthman in the presence of Hazrat Ali, Talha, Zubair, Sa’d, and many other companions (R.A.)?

As we have stated above, due to the change in Hazrat Umar’s (R.A.) policy that the Muhajireen should not be allowed to move from Madinah, a large number of Muhajireen and Ansar had moved to other cities. The rebels chose such a time for the attack when a large number of Muslims had departed for Hajj. Although the number of these rebels was no more than two or three thousand, in comparison to them, there were also around seven hundred individuals present in Madinah.

Here the question arises that the Sahaba Kiram used to clash with armies many times their size, so why did these seven hundred individuals not fight at this time? The biggest reason for this was the hilm (forbearance) of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.). You (Uthman) were not prepared to give permission to anyone to take the initiative in attacking the rebels to save your life. Hazrat Ali, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.) repeatedly asked him for permission to fight, but he refused to give permission. These gentlemen appointed their young sons—Hazrat Hasan, Husayn, Muhammad bin Talha, and ‘Abdullah bin Zubair (R.A.)—as guards at your house, but Hazrat Uthman forced them not to fight by adjuring them in God’s name. The people of Madinah gathered and went to him to ask for permission to fight the rebels, but you (Uthman) forced them to go back by making them take oaths.

(Tabari – 3/1-440)

This is why these gentlemen could not do anything for your protection. Then when the attackers assaulted your house, Hazrat Hasan, ‘Abdullah bin Zubair, and Muhammad bin Talha (R.A.) were guarding the door. On one occasion, these same gentlemen put up a strong fight against the rebels, and in this, Hazrat Hasan (R.A.) was also injured. After that, the murderers climbed over the wall, came in, and martyred you. By the time these gentlemen (the guards) became aware, the murderers had done their work and left.

This question arises in the minds of students of history: why did Hazrat Uthman do this?

The answer to this is in the story of Habil (Abel) and Qabil (Cain). Just as when Qabil threatened to kill Habil, he (Habil) had said:

لَئِنْ بَسَطتَ إِلَيَّ يَدَكَ لِتَقْتُلَنِي مَا أَنَا بِبَاسِطٍ يَدِي إِلَيْكَ لأَقْتُلَكَ إِنِّي أَخَافُ اللَّهَ رَبَّ الْعَالَمِينَ

“If you should stretch your hand against me to kill me, I shall not stretch my hand against you to kill you, for I fear Allah, the Lord of the worlds.” (Surah Al-Ma’idah 28)

This very “Habili” (Abel-like) temperament had come to Hazrat Uthman’s (R.A.) share. You absolutely did not consider it correct to shed the blood of a single Muslim to save your own life; otherwise, the people of Madinah were ready to shed even the last drop of their blood for you. Hazrat Hasan (R.A.) inherited this exact same temperament, and he was very impressed by this course of action of his relative and uncle-in-law (Hazrat Uthman).

What Steps Did Hazrat Ali and Other Senior Companions Take in Defense of Hazrat Uthman?

Now this question arises: alright, if not war, then what steps did Hazrat Ali and other senior companions (R.A.) take in defense of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.)?

A study of historical narrations shows that whatever was possible for these gentlemen, other than war, they did it. The details are as follows:

• The initial plan of the rebels was to win over one of Hazrat Ali, Talha, or Zubair (R.A.) with the lure of the caliphate and depose Hazrat Uthman with their help. In this way, the blame would fall on these companions, and their (the rebels’) objective would be achieved. Thus, when they camped outside Madinah at the places named Dhu al-Marwah, Dhu Khushub, and A’was, they went to these elders and presented this very plan. The people of Egypt came to Hazrat Ali, the people of Basra to Hazrat Talha, and the people of Kufa to Hazrat Zubair (R.A.) and induced them that they were ready to make these gentlemen Caliph. When Hazrat Ali heard their proposal, he shouted at them and, cursing and reprimanding them, said: “The righteous people know that the army of Dhu al-Marwah and Dhu Khushub has been cursed by Muhammad (PBUH). Go back, may Allah protect me from your company.” The people of Basra put this same matter before Hazrat Talha (R.A.), so he said: “The believers know that the armies of Dhu al-Marwah, Dhu Khushub, and A’was have been cursed by Muhammad (PBUH).” Hazrat Zubair (R.A.) also gave the same reply.
  (Tabari – 3/399)
• Hazrat Ali sent his sons Hasan and Husayn, Hazrat Talha his sons Muhammad and Musa, and Hazrat Zubair his son ‘Abdullah (R.A.) to protect Hazrat Uthman (R.A.). This was at a time when the rebels were besieging Madinah and could martyr the Caliph of the time at any moment. In this way, these esteemed companions put their young sons on a very dangerous task. The age of all these young companions at that time would be around thirty years.
  (Tabari – 3/399)
• When Hazrat Ali received the news of Hazrat Uthman’s (R.A.) martyrdom, he came running and struck his sons Hasan and Husayn (R.A.) and rebuked ‘Abdullah bin Zubair and Muhammad bin Talha, saying how this tragedy could have happened while you were present.
  (Baladhuri – 6/186)
• Since the majority of the Egyptian rebels were supporters of Hazrat Ali (R.A.), he repeatedly went to them and tried to create a split among them so they would go back. On one occasion, he took a whole delegation of Muhajireen and Ansar. Hazrat Ali (R.A.) on behalf of the Muhajireen and Hazrat Muhammad bin Maslamah (R.A.) on behalf of the Ansar spoke in such a way that those among the rebels who had come merely as a result of propaganda agreed to go back.
• Numerous companions and tabi’in (successors), including Sa’id bin al-‘As, Abu Hurayrah, ‘Abdullah bin Salam, and Muhammad bin Maslamah (R.A.), made strenuous efforts to reason with the rebels. The Mothers of the Believers also supported the oppressed Caliph, among whom Sayyida ‘A’ishah and Umm Habiba (R.A.) were prominent. Sayyida ‘A’ishah tried hard to make her brother, Muhammad bin Abi Bakr, understand. Sayyida Umm Habiba, while delivering water to the martyred Caliph, narrowly escaped being martyred herself.

What Was the Role of Marwan bin al-Hakam?

Some historians have severely criticized the character of Marwan bin al-Hakam. They say that he was a hypocrite (munafiq) and that it was because of him that Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) was martyred. In reality, Marwan is counted among the junior companions (sighar al-sahaba) or senior successors (kibar al-tabi’in). He was Hazrat Uthman’s son-in-law and related to Hazrat Ali by marriage (ham-zulf). If Marwan’s character is examined in Tabari’s narrations, it is known that he was an ardent supporter of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.). He defended him vigorously during the rebels’ attack and was himself severely injured in the process. If he had not been sincere to Hazrat Uthman, this would not have happened, and he would not have been injured. From these narrations, however, it is known that Marwan was very hot-blooded, and problems also arose because of his zeal. A few narrations in this regard are:

• According to Waqidi’s narration, when Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) was criticized regarding the appointment of governors, Marwan said to the critics: “If you wish, we can have the sword decide between you and us.” At this, Hazrat Uthman said: “You remain silent, and leave me with my companions. What kind of talk is this? Did I not tell you not to speak in such matters?”
  (Tabari – 3/1-385)
• When the rebels gathered in Madinah to martyr Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), Marwan said to them: “What is the matter? You have gathered in this way as if you have come to loot. Have you come to snatch the government from our hands? Get out of here. By Allah, if you turn towards us, we will treat you in a way that you will not like, and its outcome will also be bad. Go back to your homes because, by Allah, we are not overcome or helpless.” At that time, Hazrat Ali (R.A.) was busy reasoning with these rebels and sending them back. Due to this speech of Marwan, his efforts were undone, and he (Ali) became very angry and came to Hazrat Uthman (R.A.).
  (Tabari – 3/1-414)
• Marwan’s slave, Abu Hafsa, states that when the rebels besieged Hazrat Uthman’s (R.A.) house, he (Uthman) said to Marwan: “You stay inside the house and do not go out.” But Marwan did not obey his command and said: “By Allah! No one can martyr you, nor can anyone harm a hair on your head as long as I am alive and can hear.” Saying this, he came out. At that time I (his slave) said: “Now my master will not be spared.” So I went out in his support. At that time, our number was small. Marwan was reciting rajaz (martial) verses and shouting: “Who is there who will fight me?” At that time, the lower part of his armor had risen, which he joined with his sash. Ibn al-Nabba’ came forward to fight him and struck a blow with a sword on his neck from behind, which proved effective, and he fell to the ground. His pulse faded. I carried him to the house of Fatima bint Aws, the mother of Ibrahim al-‘Adi.
  (Tabari – 3/1-436)

From these narrations, it is known that due to the zeal of Marwan bin al-Hakam, the efforts of those elders who wanted to send the rebels away peacefully were being harmed. Because of this, Hazrat Ali (R.A.) would also get angry, and sometimes he would also say harsh words to Marwan. Some narrators have tried to give the impression that Hazrat Ali did not consider Marwan sincere. In our opinion, this view is not correct because if Hazrat Ali did not consider him sincere, his two daughters would not have been married to Marwan’s sons, ‘Abd al-Malik and Mu’awiyah bin Marwan.

(Ibn Hazm, Jamharat al-Ansab al-‘Arab. 38, 87. Cairo: Dar al-Ma’arif)

How is it possible that Hazrat Ali considered Marwan a hypocrite, and then his daughters were married into his house? The wife of Mu’awiyah bin Marwan was Sayyida Ramla bint Ali (R.A.). Marwan remained the governor of Madinah during the era of Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.), and Hazrat Hasan and Husayn (R.A.) used to pray behind him. Imam Malik, in his Muwatta’, has transmitted Marwan’s judicial decisions as the Sunnah of the companions.

It seems that some words have been inserted into these narrations related to Marwan. During the Umayyad period, the caliphate came into the hands of the Aal-e-Marwan (house of Marwan), and his son ‘Abd al-Malik bin Marwan and five grandsons—Walid and Sulayman bin ‘Abd al-Malik, ‘Umar bin ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, Yazid bin ‘Abd al-Malik, and Hisham bin ‘Abd al-Malik—became Caliphs. To raise rebellions against these Caliphs, the ‘Alawites and ‘Abbasids conducted tremendous propaganda against them and tried to defame them. What Hazrat Ali (R.A.) has been made to say about Marwan in these narrations was part of that same propaganda.

What Steps Did the Companions and Successors in Other Cities Take in Defense of Hazrat Uthman?

When the letters of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) reached the governors of different cities, in which the situation of Madinah was described, these gentlemen immediately prepared armies and dispatched them to Madinah.

• From Syria, Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) sent Habib bin Maslamah al-Fihri.
• From Egypt, Hazrat ‘Abdullah bin Abi Sarh (R.A.) sent Mu’awiyah bin Khudayj al-Sakuni with an army.
• From the people of Kufa, Hazrat Qa’qa’ bin ‘Amr (R.A.) set out.

The companions in Kufa rose up to help Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) and encouraged the people for this. Among them, Hazrat ‘Uqbah bin ‘Amr, ‘Abdullah bin Abi Awfa, and Hanzalah bin al-Rabi’ al-Tamimi (R.A.) were prominent.

Since an esteemed companion like Hazrat ‘Abdullah bin Mas’ud (R.A.) had lived in Kufa, a large circle of his students was found there. Among them, Masruq bin al-Ajda’, Aswad bin Yazid, Shurayh bin al-Harith, and ‘Abdullah bin Hakam (May Allah have mercy on them) were prominent. These people used to walk around in Kufa, give speeches in different gatherings, and prepare the Muslims to help the Caliph. In Basra, Hazrat ‘Imran bin Husayn, Anas bin Malik, and Hisham bin ‘Amir (R.A.) were similarly preparing the people by giving speeches, and from the tabi’in, people like Ka’b bin Sawr and Haram bin Hayyan al-‘Abdi (May Allah have mercy on them) were with them. In Syria, Hazrat ‘Ubadah bin al-Samit, Abu Darda’, and Abu Usama, and in Egypt, Kharijah (R.A.) were prominent. Apart from these, there were many other people who made efforts of this nature, prepared armies, and dispatched them to Madinah.

(Tabari – 3/1-401)

This shows the degree to which Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) was popular among the masses and that the rebels’ propaganda had not made any particular impact on the common people.

These armies were still on the way when they received the news of Hazrat Uthman’s (R.A.) martyrdom. Now they fell into a dilemma about what to do, because there was no Caliph left in the center now. Hazrat Ali, Talha, and Zubair (R.A.) were present there, one of whom was to become the Caliph. For this reason, these armies waited to receive some information from these gentlemen. On the other hand, the rebels started monitoring these gentlemen and cut off their contact with the rest of the world. More details of this are forthcoming under the caliphate of Hazrat Ali (R.A.).

What Was the Fate of Uthman’s Murderers?

The rebel movement had three circles or rings.

1. One group among them was that which was directly involved in the murder of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.).
2. The second type of people were those who were not directly involved in the murder, but they were among the rebels who attacked Madinah.
3. The third type of rebels were those who had not attacked Madinah but belonged to the rebel movement and later joined the army of Hazrat Ali (R.A.).

What happened to all of them? We will study the details of this later under the caliphate of Hazrat Ali (R.A.). Here, we will mention it briefly.

Among these, the fate of the first two types of rebels was very bad. According to what their own narrators, Abu Mikhnaf and Hisham Kalbi, have written about their deaths, before the Battle of the Camel, their Basra chapter was completely wiped out by the armies of Hazrat Talha and Zubair (R.A.), in which their leader Hakim bin Jabala was killed. After this, a very large number of them were killed in the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin. When Muhammad bin Abi Bakr became the governor of Egypt, a rebellion flared up against him throughout Egypt. He was killed in Egypt, and his corpse was stuffed into the skin of a donkey and burned.

(Tabari – 3/2-305)

Muhammad bin Abi Hudhayfa fled and took refuge in a cave. People searched for him there, dragged him out of the cave, and killed him.

(Tabari – 3/2-308)

After Muhammad bin Abi Bakr, when Malik al-Ashtar went to Egypt to take over the governorship, a farmer poisoned him to death on the way.

(Tabari – 3/2-296)

When Hazrat Hasan made an alliance with Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.), initially Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) turned a blind eye to the rebel movement for some time because Hazrat Hasan (R.A.) had requested amnesty for them. A short time later, when these rebels formed a gang and began a rebellion, Hazrat Mu’awiyah took action against them. Now these murderers of Uthman were scattered here and there and went into hiding in the jungles and mountains. The armies of Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) searched for them everywhere. He (Mu’awiyah) had a prison built specially for the murderers of Uthman near the city of Homs, where they were kept and interrogated, and whoever was proven to be guilty of the murder of Uthman was executed in qisas (retribution).

(Yaqut al-Hamawi. Mu’jam al-Buldan. Chapter Jim and Lam. Al-Jalil. 2/157. Beirut: Dar al-Sadir.)

In this way, the real objective of the rebels could not be fulfilled, and they departed from the world in the hope of seizing the government.

Since the greatest damage to this plan of the rebels was caused by Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.), their later generations took revenge for this by defaming him. Heaps of narrations were fabricated against him, and his character was assassinated. Later, these narrations became part of the history books. Those people who, in their simple-mindedness, were influenced by these false narrations, speak ill of Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) to this day.

Was the Martyrdom of Uthman a Conspiracy of the ‘Ajam (Non-Arabs)?

Some gentlemen have written books under the title “The ‘Ajam Conspiracy” and have called the killing of Uthman a conspiracy of the ‘Ajam. As far as we have investigated this rebellion, it appears that all its leaders were Arabs. These were people who were not happy with the government of the time for one reason or another. Their desire was that power be handed over to them. In various historical narrations, there is mention of the people of the city of Hamadan in Iran, who participated in these wars with great zeal and fervor. It is possible that the Arabs themselves used these ‘Ajam, but the leadership was, in any case, Arab.

Yes, it can be said that the people of Iraq and Egypt were prominent in the martyrdom of Uthman. Later, Egypt was completely cleansed of these rebels, but Iraq remained their stronghold. After this, they remained busy in machinations for a long time and kept raising rebellions against the central governments. The people of Iran joined this scenario much later. They kept raising their own small-scale rebellions, which the local governors easily quashed. However, in this central-level rebellion, the people of Iraq played a fundamental role. In this, too, not all the inhabitants of Iraq were participants; rather, it was a mischievous class of theirs who did not consider it bad to raise rebellions and disturb the peace for the sake of their own power.

If the Caliph Had Been Someone Else, Would the Situation Have Been Different?

Many historians have raised this question: if, for example, Hazrat Ali (R.A.) had been the third Rashidun Caliph instead of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.), perhaps the situation would have been different. In our opinion, to think that the situation would have been different if the Caliph had been different is not correct. The reasons for this are:

• As we have stated, rebellious movements have a life cycle. It is not that a rebellion suddenly stands up; rather, there are years of planning behind it. We can estimate that the foundations of this rebel movement had probably been laid in the era of Hazrat Umar, or perhaps even Abu Bakr (R.A.). For this reason, whoever the third Caliph was, the rebel movement was bound to rise. In that case, the Caliph who was martyred would perhaps have been Hazrat Ali (R.A.), and whoever became the fourth Caliph after him, the rebels would have used his name for their own purposes. In that situation, it is possible that a political party or religious sect would have been established in the name of Hazrat Uthman, Talha, or Zubair (R.A.).
• Whatever the government policies were, it was not possible for them to change just by the Caliph changing, because the work of policy-making was done by the Sahaba Kiram together through consultation. In the era of Hazrat Uthman, Hazrat Ali, Talha, Zubair, and Sa’d (R.A.) all used to make decisions together. For this reason, if the Caliph had been one of these gentlemen, the policies would have remained the same, but perhaps that much soft-heartedness would not have been adopted.
• The gentleness that Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) showed in the matter of the rebels, the possibility exists that if Hazrat Ali (R.A.) had been the third Caliph, he might not have shown that degree of gentleness. In line with the maxim “kill the cat on the first day,” he might have crushed the rebel movement in its very beginning, so perhaps it would not have reached the stage of its youth. It is also possible that in that case, the rebel movement would have kept spreading its roots internally and perhaps would have emerged some years after 35 AH / 655 CE instead.

Some people have criticized the policies of Hazrat Uthman (R.A.) that he showed great softness in the face of the rebel movement. He should have been dealt with in the same way that Hazrat Mu’awiyah (R.A.) dealt with them later.

We should not forget that at the time when Hazrat Uthman showed softness against them, the full fruits and branches of the rebel movement had not become apparent. Hazrat Uthman’s view was that if they were killed, this same rebellion might emerge ten times larger. However, later he did become convinced of strictness, and he issued the order to send armies from Kufa, Syria, etc., but by that time, it was too late, and the rebels had taken matters into their own control.

(And Allah Ta’ala knows best what is correct.)

Reference: https://alfurqan.info/problems/568

Author: IslamicHelper